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What is the sum of an organism's chemical reactions called?
Metabolism
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Why is protein synthesis important?
Special types of proteins called enzymes control the rate of each chemical reaction.
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What is the anabolic process that joins small molecules by releasing the equivalent of a water molecule?
Dehydration Synthesis
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What is enymatically adding a water molecule to split a milecule?
Hydrolysis
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How do enzymes control metabolic reactions?
Most enzymes are globular proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions in cells by lowering activation energy required to start these reactions.
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Steps of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction:
1. Active sites temporarily combine with portions of the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. 2. This interaction strains chemical bonds in the substrate in a way that makes a particular chemical reaction more likely to occur. 3. When it does, the enzyme is released in its original form, able to bind to another substrate molecule.
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What is part of an enzyme that temporarily binds to a substrate?
Active site
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An enzyme that controls the rate of a metabolic pathway by regulating one of its steps. This stabilizes the rate of production and prevents under or over production of a product:
rate-limiting enzyme
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How does ATP store chemical energy and make it available to a cell?
- Each ATP molecule consists of 3 main parts:
- An adenine, a ribose, and 3 phosphates in a chain. The 2nd and 3rd phosphate are attached by a high-energy bonds, and the chemical energy stored in one or both may be quickly trasnferred to another molecule in a metabolic reaction. The energy held in the bonds are released when broken, giving energy to the cell.
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Explain the importance of the oxidation of glucose:
The energy released by oxidation of glucose is harnessed to promote cellular metabolism.
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What are rare distinctions in DNA sequences that alter health or appearance?
Mutations
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How can mutations cause disease?
- 1. When an enzyme is lacking from a metebolic pathway, childgood strage diseases result
- 2. A protein may have altered function (cystic fibrosis/cickle cell anemia)
- 3.A protein may be produced in excess ( In Epilepsy, excess GABA can lead to increased norepinephrine/dopamine)
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What are SNP's (pronounced snips)-
- Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms-more common genetic variants with no detectable effects.
- Polymorphism means many forms.
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2 ways mutations originate:
- Spontaneously due to the chemical tendency of free nitrogenous bases to exist in 2 slightly different structures.
- Induced-a response to exposure to a certain chemical or radiation.
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How is glucose stored rather than broken down?
Following a meal, when glucose concentration is relatively high, liver cells obtain glucose from the blood and synthesize glycogen.
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What is a gene?
Part of a DNA molecule that encodes the information to synthesize a protein, a control sequence, or tRNA or rRNA. The unit of inheritance.
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What is a genome?
Complete set of genetic instructions for an organism.
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What is a genetic code?
Information for synthesizing proteins encoded in the nucleotide sequence of DNA molecules.
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What is transcription?
Manufacturing a complimentary RNA from DNA.
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What is translation?
Assembly of an amino acid chain according to the sequence of base triplets in an mRNA molecule.
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Name 3 types of genetic changes.
- SNP's.
- Mutations.
- Inborn errors of metabolism.
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Describe a tissue and explain the intracellular junctions found in tissues.
- Tissues-similar cells that are specialized to perform a common function.
- Tight-junctions-zipper-like junctions that prevent extracellular leakage.
- Desmosomes-hold adjacent cells, and therefore hold the layer of cells together.
- Gap-junctions-channels between cells for passage of substances and impulses.
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How are glands classified?
- By their secretory actions-endocrine secretes product into tissue fluid/blood; exocrine glands secrete product into ducts that open to surfaces.
- By their number of cells-unicellular/multicellular.
- By the way the duct branches-simple/compound.
- Shape-tubular/alveolar.
- How they secrete hormones-(merocrine release fluid products by exocytosis.)
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What is the major function of Areolar connective tissue?
diffusion
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What is the major function of Adipose connective tissue?
protection/energy store
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What is the major function of Reticular connective tissue?
support
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What is the major function of dense regular connective tissue?
attachment
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What is the major function of dense irregular connective tissue?
tensile strength
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What is the major function of elastic connective tissue?
durability with stretch
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What is the major function of hyaline cartilage?
support
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What is the major function of fibrocartilage?
shock absorber
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What is the major function of elastic cartilage?
shape maintenance plus flexibility
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What is the major function of bone?
support, hematopoiesis
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What is the major function of blood?
transport of nutrients, waste, and gas
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Describe and locate Serous membranes:
- Found in CLOSED ventral body cavities.
- Visceral or Parietal.
- Slippery, soapy-looking watery fluid.
- Lungs, heart, and abdominal organs.
- Protects.
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Describe and locate Mucous membranes:
- Line body cavities OPEN to outside.
- Lines digestive, respiratory, and urinary tract.
- Consists of a layer of epithelium (varies depending upon location)
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Describe and locate Cutaneous membranes:
- SKIN:Layers of keratinized stratified squamous ET firmly attached to a thick layer of dense irregular CT.
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Describe and locate synovial membranes:
- Composed entirely of CT.
- Lines joints.
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Explain how protein is synthesized.
- Transcription-
- A) Occurs in nucleaus of the cell.
- B) DNA strands unwind and the H-bonds between the strands are broken; only one of the exposed templates of the DNA molecule is used to build the mRNA strand. RNA nucleotides (within the nucleus) into a strand. The mRNA can now leave the nucleus and travel to the ribosomes (the protein synthesis machinery.
- Translation-
- A) Occurs at ribosomes that are either free in the cytoplasm or attached to ER.
- B) Can only start at START CODON A-U-G.
- C) tRNA molecules bring appropriate amino acids for each codon to the ribosome. The tRNA has an ANTICODON which is complimentary to the codon on the mRNA strand.
- D) Two codons of mRNA are read in the ribosome at the same time. tRNA molecules deliver their amino acids to the ribosome, and a peptide bond is formed between adjacent amino acids. mRNA molicule is read codon by codon, with each corresponding amino acid being added to the chain of amino acids.
- A PROTEIN IS SYNTHESIZED!!!
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