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social psychology
how humans are influenced by other people; focuses on the individual & on immediate perceived social situation
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social development
- •how aspects (ex. emotion, personality, attachment, self, morality, gender) of our social life develop
- •we'll discuss 4 theories:
- 1) psychoanalytic theories
- 2) learning theories
- 3) theories of social cognition
- 4) ecological theories of development
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Psychoanalytic Theories
•dominated by Freud and Erikson
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psychoanalytic theory: Freud
- • development occurs as a result of needing to satisfy basic
- biological drives
- • there's a continuity of individual differences early experiences, aka a series of universal developmental stages
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psychic energy
the biologically based, instinctual drives that motivate behavior, thoughts, and feelings
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erogenous zones
areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
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Freud's Personality Structure:
divided into 3 parts:
1) Id: the biological drives, the earliest and most primitive, unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure
2) Ego: (starts at a year old); rational, logical, problem-solving component
3) Superego: (seen in ages 3-6); internalization of the parents' beliefs, and standards
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Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development
(first year); the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity; during this stage, the mother is established as the strongest love-object
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Anal Stage of Psychosexual Development
(1-3 years old); the primary source of pleasure comes from POOPING
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Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development
(3-6 years old); characterized by the localization of pleasure in the genitalia
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Latency Stage of Psychosexual Development
(6-12 years); characterized by the channeling of sexual energy into socially acceptable activities
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Genital Stage of Psychosexual Development
(12+ years); sexual maturation is complete and sexual intercourse becomes a major goal (!!!!!!!!!!)
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Superego Development
- •Oedipus complex: psychosocial conflict in which a boy experiences sexual desire for his mother and wants an exclusive relationship with her
- •Electra complex: Freud thought girls experience a similar but less intense conflict involving erotic feelings toward the father, resulting in their developing a weaker conscience than boys do
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Erik Erikson: life-span developmental theory
- • his theory includes the influence of other factors such as culture and contemporary issues
- • includes 8 age-related stages (5 during childhood & adolescence); each stage = a specific crisis
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Erikson's Stages (5 out of 8)
1) Trust vs. Mistrust: (Infancy, 0-18 months); Feeding happens; children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection; lack of this leads to mistrust
2) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (early childhood, 2-3 years); toilet training happens; children develop personal control over physical skills & independence; success leads to autonomy; failure = feelings of shame and doubt.
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool, 3-5 years); exploration happens; children assert control & power over the environment; success leads to a sense of purpose; children who exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in guilt.
4) Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years); school happens; children cope with social and academic demands; success = sense of competence; failure = inferiority.
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence, 12-18 years) social relationships 'happen'; teens develop a sense of self and personal identity; success = ability to stay true to yourself; failure = role confusion & weak sense of self
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Current Perspectives Support:
- Freud's:
- 1) emphasis of early experience and emotional
- relationships
- 2) recognition of the role of subjective experience and
- unconscious mental activity
Erikson's: search for identity in adolescence
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Overview of How Children's Nature Comes About
- • external factors (through reinforcement & punishment) shape personality and social behavior
- • contemporary learning theorists also recognize the influence of cognitive factors & the active role
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systematic desensitization
inspired by Watson; combines positive reinforcement with the presentation of the feared object; therefore person is desensitized to whatever they're afraid of
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Skinner's Operant Conditioning
- •viewed attention as a powerful reinforcer
- •showed there's difficulty extinguishing a behavior that's been previously reinforced
- •behavior modification
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Bandura – Bobo Doll Experiment
- •demonstrated that the learning of new behaviors happened by observing others
- •included vicarious reinforcement
- •observing someone else receive a reward or punishment for behavior affects the subsequent reproduction of the behavior
- •boys = more aggressive than girls
- • girls increased their level of imitation (aggression) when rewarded
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vicarious reinforcement
reinforcement that occurs when you imitate the behavior of someone who has been reinforced for that behavior; ex. avoiding hot water after seeing another person burned by it
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reciprocal determinism
concept that child-environment influences operate in both directions (a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment); Bandura's theory
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Perceived Self-Efficacy (Bandura)
people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce ideal outcomes or perform well on tasks levels that influence how they actually perform said events
- -Study: half people were told they did really well on a test, and half were told they did poorly
- -the first group who was told they performed poorly did much worse on the second test
- -if you perceive yourself as doing well, it affects your own performance later on in a positive way
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social cognition theory
- to think and reason about their own and other people's thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors
- -emphasizes the process of self-socialization: ???
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Selman's Stage Theory of Role Taking
- -role taking: ability to adopt the perspective of another person
- -Selman theorized that the process of role taking helps a child develop socially
- -they'll pay more attention to what people do/say in a normal situation; become more observant
- -Selman saw role taking as a simulation for social situations in real life (getting ready for an active participation in real life)
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Selman's 4 Stages of Development
1) 6-8 yrs: another person can have a different perspective from their own, but they attribute this to the other person not having the same information they do
2) 8-10 yrs: they're able to think about the other persons' POV
3) 10-12 yrs: Children can systematically compare their own and the others' points of view
4) 12+ yrs: adolescents can compare another person!s perspective to that of a generalized other
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Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving
- • cognitive processes in social behavior
- • aggression as a problem-solving strategy
- • highly aggressive children seem to have a hostile attributional bias
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hostile attributional bias
a tendency to perceive hostile intent on the part of others, even when it is really lacking
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Dweck s Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation
- • emphasized the role of self-attributions in academic
- achievement; described two possible orientations
- 1) entity/helpless orientation: attribute failure with attributes of themselves
- -tend to base self-worth on degree of approval they get from other people
- -if society values you, you feel better about yourself
- -these children are less likely to try out things; in order to feel good about themselves, they only do what they know they'll be good/successful at
- -Dweck suggested that this reflects individuals' beliefs that intelligence is a fixed trait & can't be changed
- 2) incremental/mastery orientation: failure is a result of the amount of effort put into something
- -such people are more likely to put more energy into something they failed at the first time around
- -these people are more successful in life; try new things and if they fail will try again but with new resolve!
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ethological & evolutionary theories
- -children as inheritors of genetically based abilities and predispositions
- -aspects of human development are presumed to be based on our evolutionary heritage
- -species-specific behavior: innate behaviors that can be seen by almost all the members of a species
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bioecological model
stresses the effect of context on development & child's active role in selecting and influencing those contexts
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Ethology
•study of animal behavior; evolutionary bases of behavior, attempting to understand behavior in terms of its adaptive or survival value (ex. imprinting)
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the larger the brain size of various primates:
-the larger the brain size of various primates, the longer their developmental period (takes longer to grow a big brain!)
-humans are a slow-developing big-brained species compared to other primates
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parental-investment theory
- -evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior
- -females’ parental investment is much greater than that of males (both before and after childbirth)
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The Bioecological Model
- -poineered byUrie Brofenbrenner: a child's environment is composed of a series of nested structures
- 1) microsystem: ex. family
- 2) mesosystem: ex. family & peers
- 3) exosystem: ex. parents’ workplace
- 4) macrosystem: ex. laws
- 5) chronosystem: ex. digital age
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Child Maltreatment
- • serious threats to child development in the US
- •less secure relationships with parents = less empathy, less self-esteem
- -more conflicts with peers and difficulties with
- academics in elementary school
- •increases risk for serious psychopathologies
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children spend more time involved with media entertainment than they do:
in any other activity besides school and sleep
- -more than 60% of television programs contain violence
- -inevitably results in decreased physical activity if watching TV
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vicarious reinforcement
observing another person receive a reward or punishment (Bandura)
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internalization
the process of adopting one's parents rules and standards as one's own; allows for the formation of a superego!
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psychic energy
FREUD's term for the biologically based instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts and feelings
-according to Freud, this initially focused on bodily needs but some of it becomes diverted and transformed into psychological needs and desires in later stages of development
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reciprocal determinism
Bandura's concept that children are affected by aspects of their environment, but that they also influence their environment (reciprocal)
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behavior modification
a form of therapy based on OPERANT conditioning, in which reinforcement contingencies are changes to encourage more adaptive behavior
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intermittent reinforcement
inconsistent response to the behavior of another person; Skinner found that this makes behaviors RESISTANT to extinction
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hostile attribution bias
in Dodge's theory, the expectation that others' ambiguous behaviors originate from a hostile intent
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incremental theory
the belief that intelligence isn't fixed and can grow as a function of experience (opposite of entity theory)
-when evaluting their own performance, children with this belief tend to focus on effort/learning rather than outcome
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entity theory
belief that a person's intelligence is fixed and unchangeable (opposite of incremental theory...duh)
-when evaluting their own performance, children with this belief tend to focus on outcome rather than effort or learning
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mesosystem
the interconnections among aspects of the immediate environment (in biological theory); level of the developmental context that includes parents' interactions with a child's peers
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macrosystem
the larger cultural and social context within which all other system are embedded (in biological theory)
-includes the subcultural groups to which a child belongs as well as the laws and values of society
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ethology
the study of behavior within an evolutionary context
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exosystem
the SETTINGS that influence a child's development but that a child does not directly experience (in biological theory)
-includes the school board & parents' workplace
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microsystem
the INTERMEDIATE environment in which an individual dIRECTLY participates (in biological theory)
-includes child's family and school
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chronosystem
HISTORICAL cicumstances that change over time and influence the other systems (in biological theory; kronos = time)
-includes the age of a child when exposed to particular events (history-ish?)
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self-socialization
the notion that children actively shape their own development; according to social cognitive theories, this involves a child's adoption of particular goals to guide their own behavior based on their knowledge and beliefs about themselves and others
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