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Cerebr/o or encephal/o
Combining form(s) meaning brain
Function: Coordinates all body activities by receiving & retransmitting message throughout the body
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Myel/o
Combining form meaning spinal cord
- Function: Transmits nerve impulse between the:
- 1. Brain
- 2. Arms & Legs
- 3. Lower part of the boy
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Neur/o and Neur/i
Combining form meaning nerve(s)
Function: Receive & transmit messages to & from all parts of the body
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encephal/o
Combining form meaning brain
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-ia
Suffix meaning abnormal condition
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par-
Prefix meaning abnormal
Example: parethesia
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-al
Suffix meaning pertaining to
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-ic
Prefix meaning pertaining to
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intra-
Prefix meaning within
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an-
Prefix meaning without
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in-
Prefix meaning without
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dys-
Prefix meaning bad, difficult, or painful
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anti-
Prefix meaning against
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hyper-
Suffix meaning excessive
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ultra-
Suffix meaning beyond
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-us
Suffix - Singular noun ending
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-ion
Suffix meaning condition or state of
Example: concussion
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-ism
Suffix meaning condition of
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esthesi/o
Combining form meaning feeling
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-esthesia
Suffix meaning sensation, feeling
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electr/o
Combining form meaning electric
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-ologist
Suffix meaning specialist
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esthet/o
Combining form meaning feeling, nervous sensation, sense of perception
Example: Anesthetist
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psych/o
Combining form meaning mind
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thym/o
Combining form meaning mind; thymus gland; soul
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anxi/o
Combining form meaning anxiety
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-thymia
Suffix meaning mind
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somn/o; somn/i
Combining form meaning sleep
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narc/o
Combining form meaning stupor, numbness
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ambul/o
Combining form meaning to walk
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-iatrist
Suffix meaning specialist
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-lytic
Suffix meaning to destroy
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-ist
Suffix meaning specialist
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-graphy
Suffix meaning process of recording or producing a picture of
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-otomy
Suffix meaning surgical incision
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-plasty
Suffix meaning surgical repair
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-rrhaphy
Suffix meaning surgical suturing
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-tropic
Suffix meaning having an affinity for
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cephal/o
Combining form meaning head
Note: encephal/o is the combining form for brain
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myel/o
Combining form meaning spinal cord (or bone marrow)
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radicul/o
Combining form mening root or nerve root
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caus/o; caust/o
Combining form meaning burn or burning
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arachn/o
Combining form meaning spider
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acr/o
Combining form meaning top
Note: Think about the acropolis
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claustr/o
Combining form meaning barrier
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agor/a
Combining form meaning marketplace
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klept/o
Combining form meaning to steal
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pyr/o; pyret/o
Combining form meaning fire (or fever)
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trichotill/o
Combining form meaning related to hair
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poli/o
combining form meaning gray matter of the brain & spinal cord
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-mania
Suffix meaning madness
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-phobia
Suffix meaning abnormal fear
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-algia
Suffix meaning pain
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-pathy
Suffix meaning disease
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-osis
Suffix meaning abnormal condition
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-lepsy
Suffix meaning seizure
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-ceps
Suffix meaning head
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-cele
Suffix meaning hernia
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mening/o; meningi/o
Combining form meaning meninges
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hydr/o
Combining form meaning water
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-itis
Suffix meaning inflammation
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-oma
Suffix meaning tumor
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-concuss/o
Combining form meaning shaken together, violently agitated
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contus/o
Combining form meaning bruise
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hemat/o; hem/o
Combining form meaning blood
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crani/o
Combining form meaning skull, cranium
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son/o
Combining form meaning sound
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ech/o
Combining form meaning sound
Note: Son/o is also a combining form meaning sound
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Sensory Organs & Receptors
- Function:
- 1. Receive external stimulation
- 2. Transmit stimulli to sensory neurons
- Sturctures:
- 1. Eyes (sight)
- 2. Ears (hearing)
- 3. Nose (smell)
- 4. Skin (touch)
- 5. Tongue (taste)
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Major Structures, Functions & Divisions of Nervous System
- Structures:
- 1. Nerves
- 2. Brain
- 3. Spinal cord
- 4. Sensory organs
- .....a. Eyes (sight)
- .....b. Ears (hearing)
- .....c. Nose (smell)
- .....d. Skin (touch)
- .....e. Tongue (taste)
- Functions:
- 1. Coordinates & controls all bodily activities
- 2. The brain is its center; when the brain quits functioning, the body dies
- Divisions (for descriptive purposes only):
- 1. Central nervous system (CNS)
- 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Structures:
- 1. Brain
- 2. Spinal cord
- Functions:
- 1. Receive & process information
- 2. Regulate all bodily activities
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Structures:
- 1. Cranial nerves - 12 pairs
- 2. Spinal nerves - 31 pairs
- Function:
- Transmit nerve signals to & from CNS
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Nerve
- 1. One or more bundles of neurons
- 2. Connect brain & spinal cord to other parts of body
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Tract
- Structure & Function:
- 1. Bundle or group of nerve fibers
- 2. Located within brain or spinal cord.
- Two Types:
- 1. Ascending nerve tracts
- 2. Descending nerve tracts
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Ascending nerve tracts
Carry nerve impulses UP toward the brain
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Descending nerve tracts
Carry nerves impulses DOWN away from the brain
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Ganglion
- 1. Nerve center
- 2. Made up of a cluster of nerve cell bodies
- 3. Outside the CNS
Note: Term also describes a benign, tumor-like cyst
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Innervation
Supply of nerves to a specific body part
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Plexus (plural: plexuses)
Network of intersecting spinal nerves
Note: This term also describes a network of intersecting blood or lymphatic vessels
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Receptors
1. Sites on sensory organs that receive external stimulation
2. Send stimulus thru sensory neurons to brain for interpretation.
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Stimulus
- Anything that:
- 1. Excites (activates) a nerve which
- 2. Causes an impulse
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Impulse
Wave of excitation transmitted thru nerve fibers & neurons
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Reflex
1. Automatic, involuntary response to some change, either inside or outside the body
- 2. Examples:
- .....a. Changes in blood pressure, heart or breathing rates
- .....b. Coughing & sneezing
- .....c. Responses to painful stimuli
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Neurons
- 1. Function:
- .....a. Basic cells of the nervous system
- .....b. Allow different parts of the body to communicate with each other.
- .....c. Carry impulses thru electrochemical process
- .....d. Process creates brain waves - patterns of electrical activity
- 2. Structure:
- .....a. One cell body
- .....b. Several dendrites
- .....c. One axon
- .....d. Terminal end fibers
3. Body has billions of neurons
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There are 3 types of neurons (ACE & SAM)
1. Types are described according to their function
- 2. The 3 types of neurons are:
- .....a. Afferent (Sensory) - toward
- .....b. Connecting (Associative) - linking
- .....c. Efferent (Motor) - away from
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Afferent neurons
- 1. Means toward
- 2. Sensory neurons
- 3. From sensory organs & skin
- 4. Carry impulses toward the brain & spinal cord
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Connecting neurons
- 1. Meaning linking/connecting
- 2. Associative neurons
- 3. Link sensory & motor neurons
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Efferent neurons
- 1. Means away from
- 2. Motor neurons
- 3. Carry impulses away from the brain & spinal cord toward muscles & glands
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Brain waves
1. Patterns of neuron electrical activity
Note: Different types of brain waves are produced during periods of intense activity, rest, & sleep
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ACE is SAM
ACE = Afferent - Connecting - Efferent (euron types)
SAM = Sensory - Associative - Motor (functions)
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Neuron Parts
- 1. Cell body - 1
- 2. Dendrites - several
- 3. Axon - 1
- 4. Terminal nerve fibers
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Dendrite
- 1. Root-like processes on nerve cell
- 2. Receive impulses
- 3. Conduct impulses to cell body
- 4. Several per cell body
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Processes
Structure that extends out from nerve cell body
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Axon
- 1. Process that extends away from cell body
- 2. Conducts impulses away from nerve cell
- 3. Can be more than 3 feet long
- 4. Many (not all) protected by myelin sheath
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Myelin Sheath
- 1. White fatty tissue
- 2. Covers most - but not all - axons of nerve cells
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Terminal end fibers
- 1. Branching nerve fibers at end of axon
- 2. Lead nervous impulse from axon to synapse
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Synapse
- 1. Space between:
- .....a. 2 neurons
- .....b. 1 neuron & a receptor organ
2. Can be a few or hundreds of synapses per neuron
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Neurotransmitters
- 1. Chemicals that make it possible for messages to cross from synapse to target receptor
- 2. 200-300 known, each with specialized function
- 3. Examples include A.N.D.E.S.:
- .....a. Acetylcholine
- .....b. Norepinephrine
- .....c. Dopamine
- .....d. Endorphins
- .....e. Serotonin
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Acetylcholine
- 1. Influences muscle action
- 2. Released at some synapes:
- .....a In spinal cord
- .....b. At neuromuscular junctions
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Norepinephrine
- 1. Responds to hypotension & physical stress
- 2. Released at synaptic nerve endings
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Dopamine
- 1. Involved in:
- ......a. Mood & thought disorders
- ......b. Abnormal movement sich as Parkinson's
2. Released within brain
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Endorphins
1. Naturally occuring substances
2. Produced by brain to relieve pain
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Serotonin
- 1. Roles in sleep, hunger, & pleasure recognition
- 2. Sometimes linked to mood disorders
- 3. Released in brain
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Glial Cells
- 1. Provide support & protection for neurons
- 2. 4 main functions:
- ......a. Surround neurons & hold in place
- ......b. Supply nutrients & oxygen to neurons
- ......c. Insulate one neuron from another
- ......d. Destroy & remove dead neurons
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Myelin Sheath
- 1. Protective covering (white sheath) made up of glial cells
- 2. Forms white matter of brain
- 3. Covers some parts of spinal cord
- 4. Covers axon of most peripheral nerves
- 5. Myelinated means having a myelin sheath
- 6. Unmyelinated nerve fibers are called gray matter
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Myelinated
- 1. Having a myelin sheath
- 2. White matter
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Unmyelinated
- 1. Lacking a myelin sheath
- 2. Gray matter - unmyelinated portion of nerve fibers
- 3.Lack of myelin sheath creates gray color of brain & spinal cord
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Central Nervous system
- 1. Made up of:
- ......a. Brain
- ......b. Spinal cord
- 2. Protected externally by bones of:
- ......a. Cranium
- ......b. Vertebrae of spinal column
- 3. Further protected within bony structures by:
- ......a. Meninges
- .....b. Cerebrospinal fluid
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Meninges (singular: meninx)
- 1. System of membranes enclosing brain & spinal cord of the CNS
- 2. Consists of 3 layers of connective tissue:
- .....a. Dura mater
- .....b. Arachnoid membrane
- .....c. Pia mater
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Dura Mater
- Thick, tough outermost membrane of the meninges2. Inner surface of cranium (skull) is lined with dura mater
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Epidural space
- 1. Inner surface of the vertebral column
- 2. This space is located between walls of the vertebral column & dura mater of the meninges
- 3. Contains fat & supportive connective tissues to cushion the dura mater
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Subdural Space
- 1. In both skull & vertebral column
- 2. Located between the dura mater & the arachnoid membrane
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Arachnoid Membrane
- 1. The second layer of the meninges
- 2. Located between the dura mater & the pia mater
- 3. Resembles a spider web.
- 4. Is loosely attached to the other meninges to allow space for fluid (cerebrospinal fluid) to flow between the layers
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Arachnoid
Means having to do with spiders
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Subarachnoid Space
1. Located below the arachnoid membrane & above the pia mater
2. Contains cerebrospinal fluid.
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Pia Mater
- 1. Third layer of the meninges
- 2. Located nearest the brain & spinal cord
- 3. Consists of delicate connective tissue that contains a rich supply of blood vessels
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Cerebrospinal Fluid (spinal fluid)
- 1. Produced by special capillaries within 4 ventricles in middle region of the cerebrum
- 2. Fluid is clear, colorless, & watery fluid that flows throughout the brain & around the spinal cord
- 3. Functions of this fluid:
- .....a. Cool & cushion brain & spinl cord from shock or injury
- .....b. Nourish brain & spinal cord by transporting nutrients and chemical messengers to them
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Parts of the Brain
- 1. Functions most essential to life are located within ost protected parts of the brain.
- 2. Parts of brain are:
- .....a. Cerebrum
- ...........(1.) Cerebral hemispheres (subsets of cerebrum)
- ..................(a.) Left
- ..................(b.) Right
- ...........(2.) Cerebral lobes (subsets of hemispheres)
- ..................(a.) Frontal
- ..................(b.) Parietal
- ..................(c.) Occipital
- ..................(d.) Temporal
- .....b. Thalamus
- .....c. Hypothalamus
- .....d. Cerebellum
- .....e. Brainstem
- ...........(1.) Midbrain
- ...........(2.) Pons
- ...........(3.) Medulla
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Cerebrum - Structures
- 1. Largest & uppermost part of the brain
- 2. Divided into two halves connected at lower midpoint by corpus callosum
- 3. Cerebral cortex is outer layer of cerebrum
- 4. Consists of 4 lobes:
- .....a. Frontal
- .....b. Parietal
- .....c. Occipital
- .....d. Temporal
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Cerebrum - Functions
- 1. Controls highest level of thought including:
- .....a. Judgment
- .....b. Memory
- .....c. Association
- .....d. Emotion
- .....e. Critical thinking
- 2. Processes sensations
- 3. Controls & integrates all voluntary muscle activity
- 4.
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Cerebellum vs. Cerebrum - Location
The cerebellum is below the cerebrum
Memory Aid: BELow and cereBELlum
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Cerebral
Means pertaining to the cerebrum or to the brain
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Cerbral Cortex
- 1. Outer layer of cerebrum
- 2. Made up of gray matter
- 3. Arranged in deep folds known as fissures
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Fissure
Normally occuring deep groove
Note: Different from skin fissure which is crack-like sores
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Cerebral Hemisphere
- 1. Hemispheres control the majority of functions on the opposite side of body
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2. Injury to one hemisphere produces sensory & motor deficits on opposite side of body - Note: The crossing of nerve fibers that makes this arrangement possible occurs in the brain stem.
- f the body
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Cerebral Lobes
1. Each cerebral hemisphere is subdivided to create pairs of cerebral lobes
2. Lobes named for the bone of the cranium covering it.
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Frontal Lobe
- Controls:
- 1. Skilled motor functions
- 2. Memory
- 3. Behavior
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Parietal Lobe
- Receives & interprets nerve impulses from sensory receptors in:
- 1. Tongue
- 2. Skin
- 3. Muscles
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Occipital Lobe
Controls eyesight
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Temporal Lobe
- Controls:
- 1. Senses of:
- .....a. Hearing
- .....b. Smell
- 2. Ability to create, store, & access new information
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Thalamus
1. Location: Below cerebrum
2. Function: Produces sensations by relaying impulses to & from cerebrum & sense organs
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Hypothalmus
1. Location: Below thalamus
- 2. Functions: Seven major regulatory functions:
- .....a. Autonomic nervous system
- .....b. Emotional responses
- .....c. Body temperature regulation
- .....d. Food intake regulation (control hunger sensations)
- .....e. Water balance regulation (control thirst sensations)
- .....f. Sleep-wakefulness cycle regulation
- .....g. Pituitary gland & endocrine system regulation
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Cerebellum
1. Structure: Second largest part of the brain
2. Location: Back of head below the posterior portion of the cerebrum
3. Functions:- .....a. General functions are to:
- ...........(1.) Produce smooth,coordinated movements
- ...........(2.) Maintain equilibrium
- ...........(3.) Maintain normal posture
- .....b. Receives incoming messages regarding:
- ...........(1.) Movement within joints
- ...........(2.) Muscle tone
- ...........(3.) Positions of the body
- .....c.
Relays messages to different parts of brain that controls the motions of the skeletal muscles -
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Brainstem - Structure
- 1. Stalk-like
- 2. Connection between:
- ......a. Cerebral hemispheres
- ......b. Spinal cord
- 3. Made up of 3 parts:
- .....a. Midbrain
- .....b. Pons
- .....c. Medulla
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Midbrain & Pons
1. Provide conduction pathways to & from higher & lower centers of brain
2. Control reflexes for movements of eyes & head in response to visual & auditory stimuli
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Pons
Latin word meaning bridge
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Medulla
- 1. Location:
- .....a. Lowest part of brainstem
- .....b. Connected to spinal cord
- 2. Function:
- Controls basic survival functions, including:
- .....a. Muscles controlling:
- ...........(1.) Respiration
- ...........(2.) Heart rate
- ...........(3.) Blood pressure
- .....b. Reflexes for:
- ...........(1.) Coughing
- ...........(2.) Sneezing
- ...........(3.) Swallowing
- ...........(4.) Vomiting
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Spinal Cord - Structure
- 1. Long, fragile tube-like
- 2. Begins at the end of the brain stem
- 3. Continues almost to bottom of the spinal column
- 4. Surrounded & protected by:
- .....a. Cerebrospinal fluid
- .....b. Meninges
- .....c. Spinal column
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Spinal Cord - Function
- 1. Contains all nerves affecting:
- .....a. Limbs
- .....b. Lower part of body
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- 2. Pathway for impulses traveling to & from brain
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- 1. Consists of:
- ......a. 12 pairs of cranial nerves that extend from the brain
- ......b. 31 pairs of spinal nerves extending from spinal cord
- 2. Three types of specialized nerves transmit signals from CNS:
- .....a. Autonomic nerve fibers
- .....b. Sensory nerve fibers
- .....c. Somatic (motor) nerve fibers
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Autonomic Nerve Fibers
- Carry instructions:
- ......a. To organs & glands
- ......b. From autonomic nervous system
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Sensory Nerves Fibers
- 1. Receive external stimuli (such as how something feels)
- 2. Transmit this information to the brain for interpretation
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Somatic (Motor) Nerve Fibers
Convey information that controls body's voluntary muscular movements
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Peripheral
Means pertaining to body parts that are away from the center of the body
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Cranial Nerves
1. 12 pairs that originate from undersurface of the brain
- 2. About each pair:
- .....a. They are identical in function & structure
- .....b. Each nerve of a pair serves half of the body
- 3. Naming:
- .....a. Identified by Roman numerals
- .....b. Named for area or function they serve
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Peripheral Spinal Nerves
1. 31 pairs grouped toegther
- 2. Naming:
-
.....a. Based on region of the body they innervate - .....b. Then by number within a region:
- ..........(1.) Cervical nerves: C1 - C8
- ..........(2.) Thoracic nerves: T1-T12
- ..........(3.) Lumbar nerves: L1-L5
- ..........(4.) Sacral nerves: S1-S5
- 3. Plexus:
- .....a. Spinal nerves sometimes join with others to form a plexus to innervate a certain area
- .....b. Example: The lumbar plexus (L1 - L4) - serves the lower back
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Autonomic Nervous System
- 1. Organized into two divisions
- .....a. Sympathetic nervous system
- .....b. Parasympathetic nervous system
2. Control involuntary actions of body such as functioning of internal organs
3. In order to maintain homestatsis, each division balances the activity of the other
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Homeostasis
Process of maintaining constant internal environment of the body
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Sympathetic Nervous System
- Prepares body for emergencies by increasing:
- .....1. Breathing rate
- .....2. Heart rate
- .....3. Blood flow to muscles
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
1. Returns body to normal after a response to stress.
2. Maintains normal body functions during ordinary circumstances that are not emotionally or physically stressful
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Anesthesiologist
Physician who specializes in administering anesthetic agents before and during surgery
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Anesthetist
Medical professional who specializes in administering anesthesia, but is not a physician.
For example: a nurse anesthetist.
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Neurologist
Physician who specializes in diagnosing & treating diseases & disorders of the nervous system.
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Neurosurgeon
Physician who specializes in surgery of the nervous system
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Psychiatrist
Physician who specializes in diagnosing & treating chemical dependencies, emotional problems, & mental illness
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Psychologist
1. Holds an advanced degree, but is not a medical doctor
2. This specialist evaluates & treats emotional problems & mental illness
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