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Herbivore:
Heterotroph that consumes plants or algae
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Carnivore:
Heterotroph that consumes other animals
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Omnivore:
Heterotroph that consumes both plants and animals
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Detritivore (decomposer):
Consume dead organic matter
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Undernourished / Undernourishment:
Deficiency in total chemical energy (calories)
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Malnourished / Malnourishment:
Deficiency in one or more essential nutrients
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Ingestion:
Taking food into the body (eating)
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Suspension feeder:
Filter food particles from water
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Deposit feeder:
Sift organic particles from soil
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Substrate feeder:
Live in or on the their food source
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Fluid feeder:
Suck nutrients out of its host
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Bulk feeder:
Eat relatively large pieces of food
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Digestion:
Process of breaking down food into molecules small enough to absorb
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Absorption:
Uptake of nutrients via body cells
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Elimination:
Passage of undigested material out of the digestive tract
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Intracellular digestion:
Food particles are engulfed by phagocytosis and digested w/in food vacuoles
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Extracellular digestion:
The breakdown of food particles outside of cells
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Peristalsis:
Involuntary muscle contractions that move food through digestive tract
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What are the four “nutritional requirements” of animals?
- (1) Chemical (converted to ATP)
- (2) Organic carbon
- (3) Organic nitrogen
- (4) essential nutrients
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What are the four classes of “essential nutrients” needed for human health?
- (1) Fatty acids
- (2) amino acids
- (3) vitamins
- (4) minerals
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What are the four main stages of food processing?
- (1)Ingestion
- (2) Digestion
- (3) Absorption
- (4) Elimination
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How do mammals carry out mechanical digestion?
Salivary glands initiating breakdown of food (glucose polymers) Teeth - chew food into smaller particles .Tongue- shapes food into a bolus; provides help with swallowing
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How do mammals carry out chemical digestion?
With gastric juice that consists of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin
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Why is it important for digestion to be compartmentalized within an organism’s body?
So the body does not digest itself
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? salivary glands:
Enzymes begin to break food particles down
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? teeth:
Chew food into smaller pieces
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? tongue:
Shape food into ball (bolus) for easier swallowing
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? pharynx:
Allows food from the mouth to pass into the esophagus
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? esophagus:
Is a conduit for food from pharynx to stomach
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? stomach:
Stores food and secretes gastric acid
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? gastric juices:
Converts (digests) food into acid chyme
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? small intestine:
Major organ of digestion and absorption
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? duodenum
First portion of small intestine where acid chyme mixes w/digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and small intestine itself
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? jejunum
Absorptions of nutrients and water
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? ileum:
Absorptions of nutrients and water
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? Villi & microvilli:
Increase surface area of small intestine, aid in absorption
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? pancreas:
produces protein digesting enzymes –its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the acidic chyme
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? liver:
Creates bile that aids in digestion and absorption of fats
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? Gall bladder:
Stores bile that aids in digestion and absorption of fats
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? large intestine
Reabsorbs water
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? colon
Recovers water that has entered alimentary canal (digestive system)
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? cecum:
Aids in fermentation of plant materials
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? rectum
Storage
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What function(s) does each of the following play in vertebrate digestion? anus:
Source for elimination of waste
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Open circulatory system:
No distinction between blood and interstitial fluid (hemolymph), Hemolymph directly bathes the organs; one or more hearts (arthropods [insects, spiders], mollusks [squid, ocotpus])
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Closed circulatory system:
Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. Branching system of vessels. More efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells one or more hearts (annelids[segmented worms, cephalopods [have tenticles], vertebrates)
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Hemolymph:
Mixture of blood and interstitial fluid (extracellular, no vassals. used in open circulatary system)
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Interstitial fluid:
Fluid surrounding cells in body tissues, provides path for nutrients gases and wastes
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Cardiovascular system:
Circulatory system of vertebrates
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Single circulation:
One circuit of blood flow (fishes, sharks)
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Double circulation:
Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart
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Pulmonary circuit (of the vertebrate circulatory system):
Oxygen poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs
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Pulmocutaneous circuit (of the vertebrate circulatory system):
Oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs and skin
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Systemic circuit (of the vertebrate circulatory system):
Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit
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Hemocyanin:
Respiratory pigments which are proteins that transport oxygen in arthropods
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Hemoglobin:
Respiratory pigments which are proteins that transport oxygen in most vertebrates and some invertebrates
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Partial pressure (of a gas):
The pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
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What are the three basic components of a circulatory system (open or closed)?
(1) circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph) (2) set of interconnecting tubes (blood vessels) (3) muscular pump (the heart)
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Which groups of organisms typically have an open circulatory system?
Arthropods(invertebrates, spiders, insects ), most Mollusks (muscles, clams)
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Which groups of organisms typically have a closed circulatory system?
Annelids (segmented worms), Cephalopods (have tentacles ex. squid octopus) , Vertebrates
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Give the basic mechanism for how circulation occurs in each of the following groups of organisms.
a. open circulatorysystem:
b. closed circulatory system.
- a. open circulatory system: Via hemocyanin pumped by the heart
- b. closed circulatory system. Via blood (hemoglobin) pumped by the heart
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What are the three main types of blood vessels in the circulatory system of vertebrates?
(1) Arteries (2) capillaries (3) veins
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Through which of the types of blood vessels in the vertebrate circulatory system does most gas exchange occur?
Capillaries
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Which groups of organisms typically have single circulation?
Bony fishes, rays, sharks (least efficient method)
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Which groups of organisms typically have double circulation?
Mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds
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Which group(s) of vertebrates have a two-chambered heart?
Bony fishes, rays, sharks
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Which group(s) of vertebrates have a three-chambered heart?
Amphibians, reptiles
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Which group(s) of vertebrates have a four-chambered heart?
Mammals, birds
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Why is a four-chambered heart an advantage in endothermic organisms?
Most efficient at pumping blood and keeping oxygen-rich and oxygen- poor blood separated
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What are the main components of blood plasma?
90% water, inorganic salts (electrolytes), plasma proteins
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Cite six functions of the various proteins found in blood plasma.
(1) Buffer blood pH (2) contribute to viscosity (3) lipid transport (4) osmotic balance (5) aid blood clotting (6) immunity
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Cite the function(s) of the red blood cells.
Transport oxygen
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Cite the function(s) of the white blood cells.
Body defense (immunity system)
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What are blood “platelets”, and what is their function?
Fragments of bone marrow cells that function in blood clotting
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Explain how gases move in relation to their relative partial pressures.
Gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure
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Cite two advantages of air as a respiratory medium (source of oxygen) over water.
(1) Air has higher concentration of oxygen than water (2) air is less dense than water (3) air is less viscous than water (thick)
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Give the basic mechanism for gas exchange across the following types of respiratory surfaces, and give two examples of organisms that exchange gasses through each type of respiratory surface listed. skin:
Via capillaries right below skin ( annelids, some amphibians)
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Give the basic mechanism for gas exchange across the following types of respiratory surfaces, and give two examples of organisms that exchange gasses through each type of respiratory surface listed.gills:
Via Out foldings of body surface (fishes, sharks)
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Give the basic mechanism for gas exchange across the following types of respiratory surfaces, and give two examples of organisms that exchange gasses through each type of respiratory surface listed.Tracheal systems:
Via branch tubes that penetrate body (Grasshoppers, flies)
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Give the basic mechanism for gas exchange across the following types of respiratory surfaces, and give two examples of organisms that exchange gasses through each type of respiratory surface listed. Lungs:
Via infoldings of body surface (humans, birds)
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Outline the pathway that inhaled air takes in the mammalian respiratory system.
Nostrils - pharynx - larynx -trachea -bronchi - bronchioles - alveoli
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Where does most gas exchange occur within the mammalian respiratory system?
Alveoli
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Briefly describe how circulation and gas exchange are coordinated in mammals (how is blood flow to and from the lungs coordinated with gas exchange across the alveoli)?
In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses into the air
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What three ways is carbon dioxide transported within the mammalian body? In what form is most carbon dioxide transported throughout the mammalian body?
- (1) Blood plasma proteins = 7% (2) bound to hemoglobin = 23% (3) as bicarbonate ions
- Majority of carbon dioxide is transported via hemoglobin
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Osmoregulation:
Regulates solute concentrations and balances the gain and loss of water
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Excretion:
Excretion: Gets rid of nitrogenous and other wastes
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Osmolarity:
Total solute concentration of a solution (expressed as molarity) -determines the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
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Isoosmotic:
Two solutions have the same osmolarlity
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Hypoosmotic:
Of, relating to, or characterized by an increased osmotic pressure (typically higher than the physiological level).
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Osmoconformer:
An animal that is isoosmotic with their surroundings, do not regulate their osmolarity
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Osmoregulator:
Expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic environment
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Stenohaline animals:
Animals that cannot tolerate large changes in external osmolarity
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Euryhaline animals:
Animals that can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity
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Anhydrobiosis:
A Dormant sate involving almost all loss of body water (Some aquatic invertebrates in temporary ponds survive dry periods in a dormant state)
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Transport epithelia:
One or more layers of specialized epithelia cells that regulate solute movements
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Kidney:
The excretory organs of vertebrates, function in both excretion and osmoregulation
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Ureter:
A duct where urine exits kidney
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Urethra:
Place where urine is expelled through
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Coelom:
Body cavity between the body wall and digestive system
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Briefly describe how marine (saltwater) animals maintain osmotic balance.
They gain water and salt ions from food and water, and excrete ions and small amounts of water from the gills and urine
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Briefly describe how freshwater animals maintain osmotic balance.
They gain water and some ions from food (no drinking) and gills, and excrete large amounts of water in dilute urine
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Briefly describe how terrestrial (land-dwelling) animals maintain osmotic balance.
Loss of water is counterbalanced by drinking/eating, metabolically (via cellular respiration) and physical adaptations
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What are the two sources of most nitrogenous wastes in animals?
(1) Proteins (2) Nucleic acids
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List the three most common forms in which nitrogenous wastes are excreted from animals, and give two examples of organisms that excrete each type of nitrogenous waste.
(1) Ammonia (fishes, most aquatic animals) (2) Urea (mammals, most adult amphibians) (3) Uric acids (insects and birds)
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of urea as a nitrogenous waste product (relative to ammonia).
Advantage- less toxic to cells and requires less water loss. Disadvantage –requires energy to convert ammonia to urea
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of uric acid as a nitrogenous waste product (relative to ammonia and urea).
Advantages- requires very little water. Disadvantages- most energy intensive to produce
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Describe the basic steps / functions of an excretory system.
a. filtration:
b. reabsorption:
c. secretion:
d. excretion:
- filtration: Pressure-filtering of body fluids
- reabsorption: Reclaiming valuable solutes
- secretion: Adding toxins and other solutes from the body fluids to filtrate
- excretion: Removing the filtrate from the system
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Name at least one group of organisms that uses each of the excretory structures listed below.
a. protonephridia:
b. metanephridia:
c. Malpighian tubules:
d. kidneys:
- a. protonephridia: Flatworms
- b. metanephridia: Segmented worms
- c. Malpighian tubules: Insects and spiders
- d. kidneys: Vertebrates
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Fission (as related to asexual reproduction in animals):
Separation of a parent into two more individuals of about the same size
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Budding (as related to asexual reproduction in animals):
New individuals arise from outgrowth of existing individuals
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Fragmentation (as related to asexual reproduction in animals):
Body breaks into pieces, some of which develop into an adult
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Regeneration (as related to asexual reproduction in animals):
Regrowth of lost body parts
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Parthenogenesis:
Development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg
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Hermaphroditism:
Each individual has male and female reproductive systems (some can self -fertilize)
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Give two examples of animals that reproduce asexually by fission.
(1) Sea anemone (2) corals
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Give two examples of animals that reproduce asexually by fission.
(1) Sea anemone (2) corals
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Give two examples of animals that reproduce asexually by fragmentation and regeneration.
(1) Sea star (2) planarian
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Give two examples of animals that reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis.
(1) Bees (2) Aphids
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Cite the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction (as compared to sexual reproduction).
Advantages- All individuals reproduce, No need for mates, Perpetuates successful genotypes. Disadvantages- No genetic variation, cannot adapt to changing environment
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Cite the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction (as compared to asexual reproduction).
Advantages- Genetic variation, increased survival in a changing environment, Elimination of harmful genes from the population. Disadvantage- Only half of the individuals are able to reproduce, Not all offspring are adapted to environment
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What advantage might hermaphroditism confer on a population of organisms?
Sometimes they can self-fertilize. Also, any two can mate without regard to gender.
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Give two examples of hermaphroditic animals.
(1) Earth worms (2) Sea slugs
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What advantage might the ability of an individual to undergo sex reversal during its lifetime confer on a population of organisms?
Allows population to survive if all males or all females die.
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Give one example of an organism that undergoes sex reversal during its lifetime.
Wrasses
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Give three mechanisms that help mediate critical timing of fertilization.
(1) Environmental cues, (2) pheromones (3) courtship behavior
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Describe how external fertilization occurs.
Eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment
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What are some advantages of external fertilization (as compared to internal fertilization)?
It produces more gametes the internal fertilization
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What are some disadvantages of external fertilization (as compared to internal fertilization)?
Requires water in order for the eggs/ sperm to not dry out
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Give two examples of organisms that undergo external fertilization.
(1) Frogs (2) Fish
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Describe how internal fertilization occurs.
Sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract
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What are some advantages of internal fertilization (as compared to external fertilization)?
Greater protection for embryo and parental care
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What are some disadvantages of internal fertilization (as compared to external fertilization)?
Requires behavioral interactions and compatible copulatory organs must be developed
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Give two examples of organisms that undergo internal fertilization.
(1) Horses (2) bears
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