-
archaea
domain- a group of prokaryotes, many of which live in extreme climates
-
bacteria
- domain- a group of diverse and widespread prokaryotes, most of which
- are unicellular and microscopic
-
biology
the study of life
-
biosphere
- the entire portion of Earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the
- planet's ecosystems
-
cell
a basic living unit that makes up all life
-
community
all living things in an ecosystem
-
consumer
- eats plants and animals, takes in oxygen and releases CO2,
- waste returns chemicals to the environment
-
controlled experient
- one of two parallel tests. varies from experimental test by one
- factor, the variable
-
domain
- a category of classifying species above the kingdom level. three
- overarching groups to organize kingdoms
-
ecosystem
- all living things in a specific place and all non-living things they
- interact with
-
emergent properties
- new properties that emerge with each step upward in the hierarchy in
- life, owing to the arrangement and interaction of parts as complexity
- increases
-
eukarya
domain- all the eukaryotes, organisms with eukaryotic cells
-
eukaryotic cell
- a larger, more complex cell divided into organelles. commonly forms
- things like plants, animals, and fungi
-
evolution
descent with modification: the genetic change in a population over generations
-
gene
a unit of inheritance that transmits information from parents to children
-
hypothesis
- a tentative explanation a scientist proposes for a specific phenomenon
- that has been observed
-
molecule
a group of atoms held together by chemical bonds
-
natural selection
- descent with modification: organisms with certain inherited
- charactestics are more likely to survive and pass on traits to the
- offspring
-
organ
- something made of multiple tissues that work together to perform a
- function in a body
-
organism
an individual living thing
-
organelle
a membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized function within a cell
-
organ system
multiple organs that work together to preform a single task in the body
-
population
all the individuals in a species living in a secific area
-
producer
photosynthetic organisms that provide food for a typical ecosystem
-
procaryotic cell
small, simple cell that commonly forms things like bacteria
-
species
- a group whose members have similar characteristics and can reproduce
- successfully together. a particular type of organism
-
systems biology
- a way of studying biology by modeling the dynamic behvaior of whole
- biological systems
-
technology
the practical application of scientific knowledge
-
theory
- a widely accepted explanatory ideas that are broad and supported by a
- large amount of evidence
-
-
-logy
the scientific study of a subject
-
-
-
-
-
-
acid
a compound that donates hydrogen ions to solutions
-
acid percipitation
rain, snow, or fog with a pH lower than 5.6
-
adhesion
the attraction between different kinds of molecules
-
aqueous solution
a solution in which water is the solvent
-
atom
the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
-
atomic mass
number of protons + number of neutrons
-
atomic number
number of protons in an atom
-
base
a compound that accepts hydrogen ions and removes them from solutions
-
buffer
- a substance that minimizes changes in bilogical fluids with a base and
- and acid component
-
chemical bond
- an attraction between two atoms after they react to each other that
- holds them together
-
chemical reaction
- the making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the
- composition of matter
-
cohesion
- the binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds
- the tendancy for molecules to sticks together
-
compound
a substance containing two or more elements in a fixed ratio
-
covalent bond
- an attraction between atoms that share one or more pairs of outer-shell
- electrons
-
double bond
a type of covalent bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons
-
electron
- a subatomic particle with a single negative electric charge. circle
- atoms at almost the speed of light.
-
electron shell
certain energy levels in an atom where electrons occur
-
electronegativity
an atom's attraction for shared electrons
-
element
- a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by
- ordinary chemical means
-
heat
- the amount of energy associated with the movement of atoms and
- molecules in a body of matter
-
hydrogen bond
- the bond between two atoms when a hydrogen atom is part of a polar
- covalent bond and its partial positive charge attracts other
- electronegative atoms
-
ion
- an atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting in a gain or
- loss of one or more electrons
-
ionic bond
an attraction between two ions with opposite charges that hold them together
-
isotope
- an isotope of an element has the same number of protons and neutrons
- as the element, but a different number of electrons
-
mass number
number of protons + number of neutrons
-
matter
anything that occupies space and has mass
-
molecule
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
-
neutron
a subatomic partical in an atom's nucleus with a neutral charge
-
nonpolar covalent bond
- a covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two
- atoms of similar electronegativity
-
nucleus
an atom's centeral core, containing protons and neutrons
-
pH scale
- a scale of how acidic or basic a solution is. the more basic a
- solution, the higher the concentration of OH-, the more
- acidic, the higher the concentration of H+. pH stands for
- potential of hydrogen.
-
polar covalent bond
- the unequal sharing of electrons due to the more electronegative atom
- pulling electrons closer and making itself partially negative and the
- other atom partially positive
-
product
an ending material in a chemical reaction
-
proton
- a subatomic particle with a single positive electric charge. stays in
- the nucleus of an atom.
-
radioactive isotope
- an unstable isotope whose nucleus decays spontaneously, giving of
- particles and energy
-
reactant
a starting material in a chemical reaction
-
salt
a compound of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl)
-
solute
the substance being dissolved in a solution
-
solution
a liquid consisting of a uniform mixture of two or more substances
-
solvent
the dissolving agent
-
surface tension
a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
-
temperature
the average speed of molecules; the intensity of heat
-
trace element
an element essential for life but required in extremely small amounts
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
alpha helix
- the spiral shape resulting from the coiling of a polypeptide in a
- protein's secondary structure
-
amine
an organic compound with one or more amino groups
-
amino acid
- an organic molecule containing a carboxyl group and an amino group;
- serves as the monomer of proteins
-
amino group
- NH2: in an organic molecule, a functional group consisting
- of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms
-
anabolic steroid
- a synthetic variant of the male hormone testosterone that mimics some
- of its effects
-
carbohydrate
- a member of the class of biological molecules consisting
- monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. used as energy
- for cells and structure for plants.
-
carbon skeleton
- the chain of carbon atoms that forms the structural backbone of an
- organic molecule
-
carbonyl group
- C=O: in an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of a carbon
- atom linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom
-
carboxyl group
- COOH/O=C-OH: in an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of
- an oxygen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to a
- hydroxyl group
-
carboxylic acid
an organic compound containing a carboxyl group
-
cellulose
- a large polysaccharide composed of many glucose monomers linked into
- cable-like fibrils that provide structural support in plant cell walls
-
chitin
- a structural polysaccharide found in many fungal cell walls and in the
- exoskeletons of arthropods
-
cholesterol
- a steroid that is an important component of animal cell membranes and
- that acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other steroids
- such as hormones
-
dehydration reaction
- a chemical process in which two molecules become covalently bonded to
- each other with the removal of water molecule. also called
- condensation
-
denaturation
- a process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure
- and hence function. can be caused by changes in pH or salt
- concentration or by high temperature. also refers to the seperation of
- the two strands of the DNA double helix.
-
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- a double-stranded helical nucleic acid molecule consisting of
- nucleotide monomers with deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases
- adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). capable of
- replicating, is an organism's genetic material.
-
disaccharide
- a sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides linked by a
- dehydration reaction
-
double helix
- the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide
- strands wound into a spiral shape
-
enzyme
- a protein or RNA molecule that serves as a bilogical catalyst,
- changing the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed
- into a different molecule in the process
-
fat
- a large lipid molecule made from an alcohol called glycerol and three
- fatty acids; a triglyceride. most fats function as energy-storage
- molecules.
-
functional group
- an assemblage of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of
- organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions
-
gene
- a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific
- nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses). most of the
- genes of a eukaryote are located in its chromosomal DNA; a few are
- carried by the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts
-
glycogen
- an extensively branched polysaccharideof many glucose monomers; serves
- as an energy-storage molecue in liver and muscle cells; the animal
- equivalent of starch
-
hydrocarbon
a chemical compound composed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen
-
hydrolysis
- a chemical process in which polymers are broken down by the chemical
- addition of water molecules to the bonds linking their monomers; an
- essential part of digestion
-
hydrophilic
- "water loving"; pertaining to polar, or charged, molecules (or parts
- of molecules) that are soluble in water
-
hydrophobic
- "water fearing"; pertaining to nonpolar molecules (or parts of
- molecules) that do not dissolve in water
-
hydroxyl group
- HO: in an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of a
- hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom
-
isomers
- organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different
- structures and, therefore, different properties
-
lipid
- an organic compound consisting mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms
- linked by nonpolar covalent bonds, making the compound mostly
- hydrophobic. lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids and are
- insoluble in water
-
macromolecule
- a giant molecule in a living organism formed by the joining of smaller
- molecules: a protein, carbohydrate, lipid, or nucleic acid
-
methyl group
CH3: in an organic molecule, a carbon bonded to three hydrogens
-
monomer
a chemical subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer
-
monosaccharide
- the simplest carbohydrate; simple sugar with a molecular formula that
- is generally some multiple of CH2O. monosaccharides are the
- building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides
-
nucleic acid
- a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a
- blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all
- cellular structures and activities. the two types of nucleic acids are
- RNA and DNA
-
organic compound
- a chemical compound containing the element carbon and usually
- synthesized by cells
-
peptide bond
- the covalent linkage between two amino acid units in a polypeptide;
- formed by a dehydration reaction
-
phosphate group
- a functional group consisting of a phosphorus atom covalently bonded
- to four oxygen atoms
-
phospholipid
- a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate
- group, giving the molecule a nonpolar hydrophobic tail and a polar
- hydrophilic head. phospholipids form bilayers that function as
- biological membranes
-
pleated sheet
the folded arrangment of a polypeptide in a protein's secondary structure
-
polymer
- a large molecule consisting of many identical or similar molecular
- units, called monomers, covalently joined together in a chain
-
polypeptide
a polymer of amino acid linked by peptide bonds
-
polysaccharide
- a carbohydrate polymer consisting of hundreds to thousands of
- monosaccharides linked by dehydration synthesis
-
primary structure
- the first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino
- acids making up a polypeptide chain
-
protein
- a functional biological molecule consisting of one or more
- polypeptides folded into a specific three-dimensional structure
-
quternary structure
- the fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the
- association of two or more polypeptide subunits
-
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- a type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose
- sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
- (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein
- synthesis and as the genome of some viruses
-
saturated
- pertaining to fats and fatty acids whose hydrocarbon chains contain
- the maximum number of hydrogens and therefore have no double covalent
- bonds. saturated fats and fatty acids solidify at room temperature.
- animal fats are generally saturated
-
secondary structure
- the second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of
- coils or folds of a polypeptide chain
-
starch
- a storage polysaccharide found in the roots of plants and certain
- other cells. a polymer of glucose
-
steroid
- a type of lipid whose carbon skeleton is in the form of four fused
- rings with various chemical groups attached; examples are cholesterol,
- testosterone, and estrogen
-
tertiary structure
- the third level of protein structure; the overall, three-dimensional
- shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the
- amino acids making up the chains
-
unsaturated
- pertaining to fats and fatty acids whose hydrocarbon chains lack the
- maximum hydrogen atoms and therefore have one or more double covalent
- bonds. unsaturated fats and fatty acids do not solidify at room
- temperature. fats from plants are generally unsaturated
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
foods that aren't well digested
- • Simple sugars:
- Dried beans, peas, and lentils containing the tri- and
- quatro-saccharides Raffinose and Stachyose
- Lactose
- Fructose
- Sorbitol, found in fruit but also an artificial sweetener
- • Starches
- • Insoluble fiber
-
basal body
- a eukaryotic cell organelle consisting of a 9 + 0 arrangement of
- microtubule triplets; may organize the microtubule assembly of a
- cilium or flagellum; structurally identical to a centriole
-
cell theory
- the theory that all living things are composed of cells and that all
- cells come from other cells
-
cell wall
- protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells,
- bacteria, fungi, and some protists; protects the cell and helps
- maintain its shape
-
cellular metabolism
the chemical activities of cells
-
central vacuole
- a membrane-enclosed sac occupying most of the interior of a mature
- plant cell that help cells grow by absorbing water, stores chemicals
- or waste products, and sometimes contains poinsons to protect against
- predators
-
centriole
- a structure in an animal cell of microtubule triplets arranged in a 9
- and 0 pattern. an animal usually has a centrosome with a pair of
- centrioles involved in cell division
-
chloroplast
- an organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs
- sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic molecules
- (sugars) from CO2 and H2O
-
chromatin
- the complex of DNA and proteins that constitutes eukaryotic
- chromosomes; often used to refer to the diffuse, very extended form
- taken by chromosomes when a cell is not dividing
-
chromosome
- a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus of a
- eukaryotic cell and most visible during mitosis and meiosis; also, the
- main gene-carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell. chromosomes
- consist of chromatin, a combination of DNA and protein
-
cilia
- a short cellular appendage specialized for locomotion formed from a
- core of nine outer doublet microtubules and two single microtubules
- covered by the cell's plasma membrane
-
crista
- an infolding of the inner membrane of a mitochondria in which is
- embedded the electron transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the
- synthesis of ATP
-
cytoplasm
- everything inside a cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus;
- consists of a semifluid medium and organelles
-
cytoskeleton
- a network of protein fibers in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell;
- includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
-
electron microscope (EM)
- an instrument that focuses an electron beam through, or onto the
- surface of, a specimen. an electron microscope achieves a hundredfold
- greater resolution than a light microscope.
-
endomembrane system
- a network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related
- either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of
- membranous vesicles
-
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- an extensive membranous network in a eukaryotic cell, continuous with
- the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough)
- and ribosome-free (smooth) regions
-
endosymbiosis
- a process by which the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic
- cells probably evolved from symbiotic associations between small
- proaryotic cells living inside larger cells
-
eukaryotic cell
- a type of cell that has a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other
- membrane-enclosed organelles. all organisms except bacteria and
- archaea are composed of eukaryotic cells
-
extracellular matrix (ECM)
- a substance in which the cells of an animal tissue are embedded;
- consists of protein and polysaccharides
-
flagellum
- a long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion. the flagella of
- prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in both structure and function. like
- cilia, eukaryotic flagella have a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
- covered by the cell's plasma membrane
-
glycoprotein
- a macromolecule consisting of one or more polypeptides linked to short
- chains of sugars
-
golgi apparatus
- an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of membranous
- sacs that modify, store, and ship products of the endoplasmic
- reticulum
-
granum
- a stack of hollow disks formed of thylakoid membrane in a chloroplast.
- grana are the sites where light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and
- converted to chemical energy during the light reactions of
- photosynthesis
-
integrins
- a transmembrane protein that interconnects the extracellular matrix
- and the cytoskeleton
-
intermediate filament
- an intermediate-sized protein fiber that is one of the three main
- kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells.
- intermediate filaments are ropelike, madeof fibrous proteins
-
intermembrane space
- one of the two fluid-filled internal compartments of the
- mitochondrion. the intermembrane space is the narrow region between
- the inner and outer membrane
-
light microscope (LM)
- an optical instrument with lenses that refract (bend) visible light to
- magnify images and project them into a viewer's eye or onto
- photographic film
-
lysosome
- a digestive organelle in eukaryotic cells; contains hydrolytic enzymes
- that digest the cell's food and water
-
microfilament
- the thinnest of the three main kinds of protein fibers making up the
- cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a solid, helic rod composed of the
- globular protein actin
-
micrograph
a photograph taken through a microscope
-
microtubule
- the thickest of the three main kinds of fibers making up the
- cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a straight, hollow tube made of
- globular protains called tubulins. microtubules form the basis of the
- structure and the movement of cilia and flagella
-
mitochondrial matrix
the fluid contained within the inner membrane of a mitochondrion
-
mitochondrion
- an organelle in eukaryotic cells where cellular respiration occurs.
- enclosed by two concentric membranes, it is where most of the cell's
- ATP is made
-
nuclear envelope
- a double membrane, perforated with pores, that encloses the nucleus
- and seperates it from the rest of the eukaryotic cells
-
nucleoid
a dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell
-
nucleolus
- a structure within the nucleus of a eukaryotic cel where ribosomal RNA
- is made and assembled with proteins imported from the cytoplasm to
- make ribosomal subunits
-
nucleus
- the genetic control center of a eukaryotic cell that contains most of
- the cell's DNA and controls the cell's activities
-
organelle
a membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized function within the cell
-
peroxisome
- an organelle containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various
- substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide
-
plasma membrane
- the membrane that sets a cell off fromits surroundings and acts as a
- selective barrier to the passage if ions and molecules into and out of
- the cell; consists of a phospholipid bilayer in which are embedded
- molecules of protein and cholesterol
-
plasmodesma
- an open channel in a plant cell wall through which strands of
- cytoplasm connect from adjacent cells
-
prokaryotic cell
- a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other
- membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains bacteria and
- archaea
-
ribosome
- a cell structure consisting of RNA and protein organized into two
- subunits and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the
- cytoplasm. the ribosomal subunits are constructed in the nucleus
-
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
- a network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's
- cytoplasm. rough ER membranes are studded with ribosomes that make
- membrane proteins and secretoy proteins
-
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
- a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the surface
- architecture of a cell or other specimen
-
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
- a network of interconnected membranous tubules in a eukaryotic cell's
- cytoplasm. SER lacks ribosomes
-
stroma
- the fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane;
- involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from CO2 and
- H2O; sugars are made in the stroma by the enzymes of the
- calvin cycle
-
thylakoid
- one of a number of disk-shaped membranous sacs inside a chloroplast.
- thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and the enzymes of the light
- reaction photosynthesis. a stack of thylakoids is called a granum.
-
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
- a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the internal
- structure of thinly sectioned specimens
-
transport vesicle
- a tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying mollecules
- produced by the cell. the vesicle buds frok the endoplasmic reticulum
- or golgi and eventually fuses with another membranous organelle or the
- plasma membrane, releasing its contents
-
vacuole
- a membrane-enclosed sac that is part of the endomembrane system of a
- eukaryotic cell, having diverse functions
-
vesicle
a sac made of memrane in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
-
active site
- location on an enzyme where the substrate fits (weakly bonds) because
- of molecular specificity
-
active transport
- proteins move materials through the cell membrane against the
- concentration gradient while using energy from ATP
-
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) function
a nucleotide that is the main chemical energy source for cellular work
-
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) structure
nitrogenous base adenine bonded to three phosphate groups
-
aquaporin
- a transport protein in the plasma membrane of some plant or animal
- cells that facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane
- (osmosis)
-
cellular respiration
a process that uses stored chemical energy for usable energy
-
chemical energy
- energy available in molecules for release in a chemical reaction; a
- form of potential energy
-
coenzyme
- an organic molecule serving as a cofactor. most vitamins function as
- coenzymes in important metabolic reactions.
-
cofactor
- a nonprotein molecule or ioni that is required for the proper
- functioning of an enzyme
-
competitive inhibitor
- a substance that ressembles an enzyme's normal substrate and blocks
- the substrate from entering the enzyme's active site
-
concentration gradient
- an increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an
- area. cells often maintain concentration gradients of ions across
- their membranes. when a gradient exists, substances tend to move from
- where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated
-
diffusion
- the spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration
- gradient from where it is more concentrated to where it's less
- concentrated
-
endergonic reaction
- an energy-requiring chemical reaction, which yields products with more
- potential energy than the reactants.
-
endocytosis
- cellular uptake of molecules or particles via formation of new
- vesicles from the plasma membrane
-
energy coupling
- in cellular metabolism, the use of energy released from an exergonic
- reaction to drive an endergonic reaction
-
energy of activation (EA)
- the amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical
- reaction will start
-
energy
the capacity to perform work, or rearrange matter
-
entropy
a measure of disorder
-
enzyme
- a protein or RNA molecule that serves as a biological catalyst,
- changing the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed
- in the process
-
exergonic reaction
- an energy-releasing chemical reaction in which the reactants contain
- more potential energy than the products
-
exocytosis
- the movement of material out of the cytoplasm of a cell by the fusion
- of vesicles with the plasma membrane
-
facilitated diffusion
- the passage of a substance through a speciffic transport protein
- across a biological membrane down its concentration gradient
-
feedback inhibition
a form of inhibition when a reaction is blocked by its products
-
first law of thermodynamics
the energy in the universe is constant; it cannot be destroyed or created
-
fluid mosaic
- a description of membrane structure, depicting a cellular membrane as
- a mosaic of diverse protein molecules embedded in a fluid bilayer made
- of phospholipids
-
heat
- thermal energy; the amount of energy associated with the movement of
- the atoms and molecules in a body of matter. heat is energy in its
- most random form
-
hypertonic solution
- the solution with the greater concentration of solutes; cells in this
- solution will lose water to their surroundings
-
hypotonic solution
- the solution with the lower concentration of solutes; cells in this
- solution will take up water from their surroundings
-
induced fit
- the change in shape of the active site of an enzyme, induced by the
- entry of the substrate so that it binds more snugly to the substrate
-
isotonic solution
- a solution having the same solute concentration as the other solution,
- thus having no effect on passage of water in or out of the cell
-
kinetic energy
- the energy of motion; the energy of a mass of matter that is moving.
- moving matter does its work by imarting motion to other matter.
-
metabolic pathway
- a series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule
- or breaks down a complex molecule into simpler compounds
-
metabolism
the totality of an organism's chemical reactions
-
noncompetitive inhibitor
- a substance that binds to an enzyme in a place other than its active
- site and changes the shape of the active site so the substrate doesn't
- fit
-
osmoregulation
- method by which organisms regulate solute concentration and balance
- the gain and loss of water
-
osmosis
the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
-
passive transport
- the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane without any
- input of energy
-
phagocytosis
- a type of endocytosis when a cell engulfs macromolecules, other cells,
- or particles into its cytoplasm
-
phosphorylation
- the transpher of a phosphate group, usually from ATP, to a molecule.
- nearly all cellular work depends on ATP energizing other molecules by
- phosphorylation
-
pinocytosis
- cellular "drinking"; a type of endocytosis in which the cell takes
- fluid and dissolved solutes into small mambranous vesicles
-
potential energy
- the energy that matter possesses because of its location or
- arrangement. water behind a dam and chemical bonds possess potential
- energy
-
receptor-mediated endocytosis
- the movement of specific molecule into a cell by the inward budding of
- membranous vesicles. the vesicles contain proteins with receptor sites
- specific to the molecules being taken in.
-
second law of thermodynamics
energy conversions increase the disorder of the universe
-
selective permeability
- a property of biological membranes that allows some substances to
- cross more easily than the others and blocks the passage of other
- substances altogether. hardest for polar molecules to cross bilayer.
-
substrate
- a specific substance (reactant) on which an enzyme acts. each enzyme
- recognizes only the specific substrate(s) of the reaction it catalyzes
-
thermodynamics
the study of energy transformation that occurs in a collection of matter
-
tonicity
- the ability of a solution surrounding a cell to cause that cell to
- gain or lose water
-
sun
ultimate source of energy
-
photosynthetic organisms
green plants, algae, photosynthetic protists and bacteria
-
photosynthesis and cellular respiration energy cycle
-
aerobically
working with oxygen
-
anaerobically
working without oxygen
-
cellular respiration
the aerobic harvesting of energy from sugar by cells
-
fast-twitch fibers
- thick muscle fibers that have fewer mitochondria and myoglobin that
- deplate their oxygen supply and switch to an energy harvesting process
- that produces less ATP and more lactic acid
-
slow-twitch fibers
- muscle fibers with a lot of mitochondria and myoglobin that use
- cellular respiration to produce ATP, as well as CO2 and
- H2O
-
myoglobin
a carrier of O2 molecules that supplies mitochondria with oxygen
-
cellular respiration chemical equation (with glucose)
- C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6(O2)
- = 6(CO2) + 6(H2O) + ATPs
-
efficiency of cellular resperation (with glucose)
produces 38 ATPs per glucose molecule = 40% glucose energy
-
car engine efficiency
25% gasoline energy to kinetic energy
-
energy required by brain
120g glucose and 15% total energy per day
-
kilocalorie (kcal)
quantity of heat needed to raise temperature of 1kg water by 1 degree C
-
energy needed by average human
2,200 kcal
-
oxidation reduction (redox) reaction
the movement of electrons from one molecule to another
-
oxidation
- loss of electrons from a substance
- loss of hydrogen from a substance
-
reduction
- addition of electrons to a substance
- addition of hydrogen to a substance
-
dehydrogenase
- important to the oxidation of organic molecules by stripping them of
- two hydrogen molecules
-
NAD+
- the coenzyme of dehydrogenase from the vitamin niacin that picks up
- the two electrons from the hydrogen dehydrogenase takes away;
- transports elctrons. on proton, H+, is released
-
dehydrogenase and NAD+ working in a pair of redox reactions
- occuring simultaneous
-
electron transport chain
- a series of elctron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons during
- the redox reactions that release their potential energy used to make
- ATP; located in the inner membrane of mitochondria, the thylakoid
- membranes of chloroplasts, and the plasma membrane of prokaryotes
-
cellular respiration: stage 1
- glycolysis; occurs in the cytoplasmic fluid and breaks glucose into
- pyruvate. produces small amounts of ATP and sends elcetrons to the
- third stage of cellular respiration
-
pyruvate
a three-carbon compound produced as part of the breakdown of glucose
-
cellular respiration: stage 2
- citric acid cycle; takes place within the mitochondria and decomposes
- a derivative of pyruvate inro CO2, completing the break
- down of glucose. produces small amounts of ATP and sends elcetrons to
- the third stage of cellular respiration
-
cellular respiration: stage 3
- oxidative phodphorylation; sends electrons down the elctron transport
- chain, which pumps hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial
- membrane into the intermembrane space. chemiosmosis occurs and ATP is
- produced
-
chemiosmosis
- in cellular resperation, the potential energy of the concentration
- gradient of hydrogen ions drives the diffusion of H+
- through ATP synthase. this causes it to spin, which produces enough
- energy to phosphorylize ADP
-
cellular respiration diagram
-
autotroph
- plants, algae, and many bacteria that make their own food (mostly
- photosynthesis) without consuming other organisms or their molecules
-
C3 plant
- a plant that uses the calvin cycle for the intitial steps that
- incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a 3-carbon
- compound as the first stable intermediate
-
C4 plant
- a plant the prefaces the calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate
- CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which
- supplies CO2 for the calvin cycle
-
calcin cycle
- the second of two phases of photosynthesis; a cyclic series of
- chemical reactions that occur in the stroma of a chloroplast, using
- the carbon in CO2 and the ATP and NADPH produced by the
- light reactions to make the energy-rich molecule G3P
-
CAM plant
- a plant that uses an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions
- in which CO2 entering open storma during the night is
- converted to organic acids, which release CO2 for the
- calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed
-
carbon fixation
- the incorporation of carbon from atmospheric CO2 into the
- carbon in organic compounds. during photosyntheis in a C3
- plant, carbon is fixed into a three-carbon suger sugar as it enters
- the calvin cycle. in C4 and CAM plants, carbon is fixed
- into a four-carbon sugar
-
chlorophyll
- a green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and
- certain prokaryotes. chlorophyll a can participate directly
- in light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy
-
electromagnetic spectrum
- the entire spectrum of radiation ranging in wavelengths from less than
- a nanometer to more than a kilometer
-
global warming
- a slow but steady rise in earth's surface temperature, caused by
- incresing concentration of greenhouse gases (such as CO2
- and CH4) in the atmosphere
-
granum
- a stack of hollow disks formed of thylakoid membrane in a chloroplast.
- grana are the sites where light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and
- converted to chemical energy during the light reactions of
- photosynthesis
-
greenhouse effect
- the warming of the atmosphere caused by CO2,
- CH4, and other gases that absorb infared radiation and slow
- its escape from earth's surface
-
light reactions
- the first of two stages in photosynthesis; the steps in which solar
- energy is absorbed and converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP
- and NADPH. the light reactions power the sugar-producing calvin cycle
- but produce no sugar themselves
-
mesophyll
- the green tissue in the interior of a leaf; a lelaf's ground tissue
- system; the main site of photosynthesis
-
photoautotroph
- an organism that obtains energy from sunlight and carbon from
- CO2 from photosynthesis
-
photon
- a fixed quantity of light energy. the shorter the wavelength of light,
- the greater its energy
-
photophosphorylation
- the production of ATP by chemiosmosis during the light reactions of
- photosynthesis
-
photorespiration
- in a plant cell, the breakdown of a two-carbon compound produced by
- the calvin cycle. the calvin cycle produces the two-carbon compound,
- instead of its usual three-carbon product G3P, when leaf cells fix
- O2, instead of CO2. produces no sugar molecules
- or ATP
-
photosynthesis
- the process by which plants, autotrophic protists, and some bacteria
- use light energy to make sugars and other organic food molecules from
- CO2 and H2O
-
photosystem
- a light-capturing unit of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane,
- consisting of a reaction center complex surrounded by numerous
- light-harvesting complexes
-
producer
- an organism that makes organic food molecules from CO2,
- H2O, and other inorganic raw materials; a plant, agla, or
- autotrophic prokaryote
-
reaction center complex
- in a photosystem, the chlorophyll a molecules and the primary
- electron acceptor that trigger the light reactions of photosynthesis.
- the chlorophyll donates an electron excited by light energy to the
- primary electron acceptor, which passes and electron to the ETC
-
stoma
- a pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of a leaf. when
- stomata are open, CO2 enters a lead, and water and
- O2 exit. a plant conserves water when its stomata are
- closed
-
stroma
- the fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane;
- involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from CO2 and
- water; sugars are made in the stroma by the enzymes of the calvin
- cycle
-
thylakoid
- one of the number of disk-shaped sacs inside a chloroplast. thylakoid
- membranes contain chlorophyll and the enzymes of the light reactions
- of photosynthesis. a stack of thylakoids is called a granum
-
uses for G3P
- cellular respiration
- cellulose
- starch
- other organic compounds
-
wavelength
- the distance between crests of adjacent waves, such as those of the
- electromagnetic spectrum
-
acytel coenzyme A
- the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration;
- formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme
-
alcohol fermentation
the conversion of pruvate from glycolysis to CO2 and ethyl alcohol
-
ATP synthase
- a cluster of several membrane proteins that function in chemiosmosis
- with adjacent ETC's, using the energy of an H+ concentration gradient
- to make ATP
-
cellular respiration
- the aerobic harvesting of energy from food molecules; the
- energy-releasing chemical breakdown of food molecules, such as
- glucose, and the storage of potential energy in a form that cells can
- use to perform work; involves glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and
- oxidative phosphorylation (the ETC and chemiosmosis)
-
chemiosmosis
- energy-coupling mechanics that uses the energy from H+ gradients
- across membranes to phosphorylate ADP; powers most ATP synthesis in
- cells
-
citric acid cycle
- the metabolic cycle fueled by acytel coA formed after glycolysis in
- cellular respiration. completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose
- molecules to CO2. the cycle occurs in the matrix of
- mitochondria and supplies most of the NADH molecules that carry energy
- to the ETC's. the second major stage of cell resp.
-
dehydrogenase
- an enzyme that catalyzes a chemical reaction during which one or more
- hydrogen atoms are removed from a molecule
-
electron transport chain
- a series of electron carrier molecules during the redox reactions that
- release energy used to make ATP; located in the inner membrane of
- mitochondria, the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts, and the plasma
- membranes of porkaryotes
-
facultative anaerobe
- an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if O2 is
- present, but that switches to fermentation when oxygen is absent
-
glycolysis
- the multistep chemical breakdown of a molecule of glucose into two
- molecules of pyruvate; the first stage of cellular respiration in all
- organisms; occurs in the cytoplasmic fluid
-
intermediate
- one of the compounds that form between the initial reactant and the
- final product in a metabolic pathway, such as between glucose and
- pyruvate in glycolysis
-
kilocalorie
- a quantity of heat equal to 1,000 caloires. used to measure the energy
- content of food, usually called a Calorie
-
lactic acid fermentation
the conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of CO2
-
NAD+
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; a coenzyme that can accept
- electrons during the redox reactions of cellular metabolism. the plus
- sign indicates that the mulecules is oxidized and ready to pick up
- hydrogens; the reduced, hydrogen- (electron-) carrying form is NADH
-
obligate anaerobes
- an organism that only carries out fermentation; such organisms cannot
- use oxygen and also may be poisoned by it
-
redox reaction
- short for oxidation-reduction; a chemical reaction in which electrons
- are lost from one substance (oxidation) and added to another
- (reduction) oxidation and reduction always occur together
-
reduction
- the gain of electrons by a substance involved in a redox reaction;
- always accompanies oxidation
-
substrate-level phosphorylation
- the formation of ATP by an enzyme directly transferring a phosphate
- group to ADP from an organic molecule (for example, one of the
- intermediates in glycolysis or the citric acid cycle)
-
rotenone
a pesticide that blocks the ETC near its start
-
cyanide
- a poison that blocks the passage of electrons to the oxygen at the
- fourth protein complex
-
carbon monoxide
- a poison produced from incomplete burning that blocks the passage of
- electrons to the oxygen at the fourth protein complex
-
DNP
- dinitrophenal; an uncoupler poinson that makes the membrane leaky to
- H+ ions, destroying the H+ gradient
-
oligomycin
an antibiotic that blocks the passage of H+ through ATP synthase
-
anaphase
- the fourth stage of mitosis, beginning when sister chromatids seperate
- from each other and ending when a complete set of daughter chromosomes
- arrives at each of the two poles of the cell1
-
anchorage dependence
the requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to a solid surface
-
asexual reproduction
- the creation of offspring by a single parent, without the
- participation of a sperm and egg
-
autosome
- a chromosome not directly involved in determining the sex of an
- organism; in mammals, for example, any chromosome other than X or Y
-
benign tumor
an abnormal mass of cells that remains at its original site in the body
-
binary fission
- a means of asexual reproduction in which a parent organism, often a
- single cell, divides into two individuals of about equal size
-
carcinoma
- cancer that originates in the coverings of the body, such as skin or
- the lining of the intestinal tract
-
cell cycle
- an ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a eukaryotic
- cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own
- division into two cells
-
cell cycle control system
- a cyclically operating set of proteins that triggers and coordinates
- events in the eukaryotic cell cycle
-
cell division
the reproduction of a cell
-
haploid cell
- in the life cycle of an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell
- containing a single set of chromosomes; an n cell
-
homologous chromosomes
- the two chromosomes that make up a matched pair in a diploid cell.
- homologous chromosomes are of the same length, centromere position,
- and staining pattern and possess genes for the same characteristics at
- corresponding loci. one homologous chromosome is inherited from the
- organism's father, the other from the mother
-
interphase
- the period in the eukaryotic cell cycle when the cell is not actually
- dividing. interphase constitutes the majority of the time spent in the
- cell cycle
-
inversion
- a change in a chromosome resulting from reattachment of a chromosome
- fragment to the original chromosome, but in a reverse direction.
- mutagens and errors duiring meiosis can cause inversions.
-
karyotype
- a display of micrographs of the metaphase chromosomes of a cell,
- arranged by size and centomere position.
-
nondisjunction
- an accident of meiosis or mitosis in which a pair of homologous
- chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to seperate at
- anaphase
-
prometaphase
- the second stage of mitosis, during which the nuclear envelope
- fragments and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of
- the sister chromatids
-
prophase
- the first stage of mitosis, during which the chromatin condenses to
- form sister chromatids visible with a light microscope and the mitotic
- spindle begins to form, but the nucleus is still intact
-
sarcoma
cancer of the supportive tissues, such as bone, cartilage, and muscle
-
sex chromosome
a chromosome that determines whether an individual is male or female
-
cell plate
- a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between
- which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis
-
centromere
- the region of a duplicared chromosome where two sister chromatids are
- joined and where spindle microtubules attach during mitosis and
- meiosis. the centromere divides at the onset of anaphase during
- mitosis and anaphase II during meiosis
-
centrosome
- material in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell that gives rise to
- microtubules; important in mitosis and meiosis; also called
- microtubule-organizing center
-
chiasma
- the microscopically visible site where crossing over has occurred
- between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of
- meiosis
-
chromatin
- the complex of DNA and proteins that constitutes eukaryotic
- chromosomes; often used to refer to the diffuse, very ectended form
- taken by chromosomes when a cell is not dividing
-
chromosome
- a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus of a
- eukaryotic cell and most visible during mitosis and meiosis; also, the
- main gene-carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell. chromosomes
- consist of chromatin, a combination of DNA and protein
-
cleavage
- 1. cytokinesis in animal cells and in some protists, characterized by
- pinching in of the plasma membrane
- 2. in animal development, the succession of rapid cell divisions
- without cell growth that converts the animal zygote into a ball of
- cells
-
cleavage furrow
- the first sign of cytokinesis during cell division in an animal cell;
- a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate
-
crossing over
- the exchange of segments between chromatids of homologous chromosomes
- during synapsis in prophase I of meiosis; also, the exchange of
- segments between DNA molecules in prokaryotes
-
cytokinesis
- the division of the cytoplasm to form two seperate daughter cells.
- cytokinesis usually occurs during telophase of mitosis. mitosis and
- cytokinesis make up the mitotic phase of the cell cycle
-
leukemia
- a type of cancer of the blood-forming tissues, characterized by and
- excessive production of white blood cells and an abnormally high
- number of them in the blood; cancer of the bone marrow cells that
- produce leukocytes
-
life cycle
- the entire sequence of stages in the life of an organism, from the
- adults of one generation to the adults of the next
-
locus
- the particular site where a gene is found on a chromosome. homologous
- chromosomes have corresponding gene loci
-
lymphoma
cancer of the tissues that form white blood cells
-
malignant tumor
- an abnormal tissue mass that can spread into neighboring tissue and
- other pasrts of the body; a cancerous tissue
-
sexual reproduction
- the creation of offspring by fusion of two haploid sex cells
- (gametes), forming a diploid zygote
-
sister chromatid
one of the two identical parts of a duplicated chromosome in a eukaryotic cell
-
somatic cell
- any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell or a
- cell that develops into a sperm or egg
-
telophase
- the fifth and final stage of mitosis, during which daughter nuclei
- form at the two poles of a cell. telophase usually occurs together
- with cytokinesis
-
tetrad
- a paired set of homologous chromosomes, each composed of two sister
- chromatids. tetrads form during pophase I of meiosis
-
deletion
- the loss of one or more nucleotides from a gene by mutation; the
- loss of a fragment of a chromosome
-
density-dependent inhibition
- the arrest of cell division that occurs when cells grown in a
- laboratory dish touch one another
-
diploid cell
- in an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing two
- homologous sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent; a
- 2n cell
-
Down syndrome
- a human genetic disorder resulting from the presence of an extra
- chromosome 21; characterized by heart and respiratory defects and
- varying degrees of mental retardation
-
duplication
- repetition of part of a chromosome resulting from fusion with a
- fragment from a homologous chromosome; can result from an error in
- meiosis or from mutagenesis
-
fertilization
- the union of the nucleus of a sperm cell with the nucleus of an egg
- cell, producing a zygote
-
gamete
- a sex cell; a haploid egg or sperm. the union of two gametes of
- opposite sex produces a zygote
-
genetic recombination
- the production, by crossing over and/or independent assortment of
- chromosomes during meiosis, of offspring with allele combinations
- different from those in the parents. the term may also be used more
- specifically to mean the production by crossing over of eukaryotic and
- prokaryotic chromosomes with gene combinations different from those in
- the original chromosomes
-
genome
a complete haploid set of an organism's genes; an oganism's genetic material
-
growth factor
a protein secreted by certain body cells that simulates other cells to divide
-
meiosis
- in a sexually reproducing organism, the division of a single diploid
- nucleus into four haploid dughter nuclei. meiosis and cytokeinesis
- produce haploid gametes from diploid cells in the reproductive organs
- of the parents
-
metastasis
the spread of cancer cells beyond their original site
-
mitosic phase (M phase)
- the part of the cell cycle when the nucleus is divided, its
- chromosomes are distributed to the daughter nuclei, and the cytoplasm
- divided producing two daughter cells
-
mitotic spindle
- a football-shaped structure formed of microtubules and associated
- proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during
- mitosis and meiosis
-
mitosis
- the division of a single nucleus into two gentically identical
- daughter nuclei. mitosis and cytokinesis make up the mitotic phase of
- the cell cycle
-
translocation
- a change in a chromosome resulting from a chromosomal fragment
- attaching to a nonhomologous chromosome; can occur as a result of an
- error in meiosis or from mutagenesis
-
trisomy 21
the occurance of an extra chromosome 21, causing Down syndrome
-
tumor
an abnormal mass of cells that form within otherwise normal tissue
-
zygote
- the fertilized egg, which is diploid, that results from the union of a
- sperm cell nucleus and an egg cell nucleus
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