-
KAREN HORNEY
- Disputed Freud's psychological portrayal of women.
- Countered idea of penis envy (womb envy).
- Theory influenced by gender & personal experiences.
- Emphasis on social relationships.
- Argued against sex as the governing factor in personality. People are motivated by needs for security and love.
-
HORNEY'S LIFE
- Theme: search for love. Had many infatuations, confused and unhappy as an adolescent. Being inloved eliminated anxiety and insecurity. Desperate need for a man.
- Freudian Psychoanalisis: attraction to forceful men residue of Oedipal longings for her powerful father.
- Turned to self analysis.
- Influenced by Adler (inferiority feelings).
-
CHILDHOOD NEED FOR SAFETY
- Agreed with Freud about the importances of the early years of childhood.
- Social vs biological forces. Key factor: social relationship between child and parents.
- Safety need: Need for security and freedom from fear.
- Lack of warmth and affection leads to lack of security and induce hostility.
-
REPRESSION OF HOSTILITY
Caused by child's helplessness, fear of parent, need for genuine love, guilt feelings.
-
BASIC ANXIETY
- Comes from feeling lonely and helpless in a hostile world.
- Consequence of repressing hostility.
- Defense against basic anxiety: securing affection and love, being submissive, attaining power, withdrawing.
- Engaging with others vs. withdrawing.
-
NEUROTIC NEEDS
- Irrational defenses against anxiety.
- Ten: affection and approval, dominant partner, power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, achievement or ambition, self-sufficiency, perfection, narrow limits to life.
- Normal: manifest need to some degree.
- Abnormal: intensive, compulsive pursuit of their satisfaction is the only way to resolve basic anxiety.
- Aid only in escaping anxiety.
-
NEUROTIC TRENDS
- 3 groups of needs.
- Person's attitudes toward self and others.
- Directions of movement as expression of needs: toward, against, away from other people.
- Similar to Adler's styles of life: getting type (compliant), dominant/ruling type (aggressive), avoiding type (detached).
- One trend is dominant: neurotic.
- Other two trends are present to a lesser degree.
-
CONFLICT
- Incompatibility of three trends.
- Core of neurosis.
-
IDEALIZED SELF IMAGE: NORMAL PPL
- We construct a picture of ourselves to unify our personality.
- Realistic appraisal of abilities, potentials, weaknesses, goals, and relations with others. Flexible and dynamic. Reflects growth and self awareness.
- To realize our full potential, our self-image must clearly reflect our true self.
-
IDEALIZED SELF IMAGE: NEUROTICS
- Idealized self-image based on an unattainable ideal.
- Tyranny of the shoulds.
- Static, inflexible and unyielding.
- Discrepancy between idealized and real self-image.
- Cope through externalization of the conflict.
-
FEMININE PSY
- Womb Envy: Envy males feel toward females due to her capacity for motherhood.
- Flight from Womanhood: Women deny their femininity; unconsciously wish they were men; can lead to sexual inhibitions.
- Oedipus Complex: Not sexual; conflict between dependence and hostility.
- Motherhood or Carrer?: Conflict many women have difficulty resolving.
- Recognition of social and cultural forces.
-
-
ASSESSMENT IN HORNEY'S THEORY
- Modified Freudian techniques of free association and dream analysis.
- Importance of relationship between analyst and patient.
-
ERIKSON'S EXTENSION OF FREUD'S THEORY
- Elaborated on Freud's developmental stages (entire life span).
- Placed more emphasis on ego than id (ego independent).
- Recognized impact of cultural and historical forces.
-
ERIKSON'S LIFE
- Life theme: identity crisis.
- Trained in psychoanalysis.
- Analyzed by Anna Freud.
- Placed importance on social influences.
- Study of child-rearing practices of Sioux Indians (reinforced the influence of culture on childhood).
-
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
- Eight.
- Emphasized psychosocial NOT biological.
- Series of personal conflicts (crisis).
- Potential for conflict exists at birth (genetic).
- Prominent at different stages when our environment demands certain adaptations (environmental).
-
CRISIS
- Turning point at each developmental stage.
- Response: adaptive vs. maladaptive.
- Goal: adaptive/maladaptive balance.
- Conflict shoudl be resolved to continue in normal developmental sequence.
- If conflict is unresolved it is less likely to adapt to later problems.
- Each stage allows to develop basic strengths.
-
BASIC STRENGHTS
Motivating characteristics and beliefs deriving from satisfactory resolution of crisis at each stage.
-
-
BASIC WEAKNESSES
- Maldevelopment: when the ego consists solely of a single way of coping with conflict.
- Only adaptive tendency: neuroses (maladaptive)
- Only negative tendency: psychoses (malignant)
-
QUESTIONS ABOUT HUMAN NATURE
-
ASSESSMENT IN ERICKSON'S THEORY
- Play therapy.
- Anthropological studies.
- Psychohistorical analysis (biographical studies).
-
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS BASED ON ERIKSON'S THEORY
- Ego-identity Scale.
- Ego-identity Process Questionnaire.
- Loyola Generativity Scale.
-
RESEARCH ON ERIKSON'S THEORY
- Case study.
- Sex differences in play construction: analysis of structures built by children.
- Empirical studies support psychosocial stages of development.
- Identity crisis may occura later than age 18.
-
RAYMOND CATTELL, EYSENCK AND OTHER TRAIT THEORISTS
-
CATTELL
- Goal: predict behavior in response to a given stimulus situation (No reference to changing abnormal to normal).
- Focus on "normal" people.
- Aim: study NOT treat personality.
- Rigorously scientific: Multiple measurements; much data.
-
FACTOR ANALYSIS
Statistical technique based on correlations to find underlying common factors.
-
TRAITS
- Mental elements of personality.
- Understanding traits allows understanding of person.
- Reaction tendencies, relatively permanent, basic structural units of the personality.
-
COMMON TRAITS
possessed by all.
-
UNIQUE TRAITS
possessed by few.
-
ABILITY TRAITS
skills and work toward goals.
-
TEMPERAMENT TRAITS
behavioral style in response to environment.
-
DYNAMIC TRAITS
describe motivations and interests.
-
SURFACE TRAITS
correlated traits, but without common factor/source.
-
SOURCE TRAITS
stable, permanent.
-
CONSTITUTIONAL TRAITS
source traits dependent on physiology.
-
ENVIRONMENTAL-MOLD TRAITS
source traits learned from social/environmental interactions.
-
SOURCE TRAITS: BASIC FACTORS
- 16 source traits identified.
- 16PF Questionnaire.
- Bipolar form (two ends of continuum).
- Source Traits: Basic elements of personality as atoms are the basic units of the physical world.
-
DYNAMIC TRAITS: MOTIVATING FORCE
- Concerned with motivation.
- 2 kinds: ergs and sentiments.
-
ERGS
- Innate energy source/driving force for all behaviors; constitutional source traits that provide energy for goal-oriented behavior.
- Anger, appeal, curiosity, disgust, gregariousness, hunger, protection, security, self-assertion, self-submission, sex.
-
SENTIMENTS
- environmental-mold source traits that motivate behavior.
- can be unlearned.
-
INFLUENCES OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
- Heredity and environment shape personality.
- Compared similarities found between siblings.
- 1/3 of personality is genetically based.
- 2/3 of personality is social/environmental influences.
-
CATTELL'S STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
-
ASSESSMENT IN CATTELL'S THEORY
- L-data: Involve overt behaviors that are rated by an observer and occur in a naturalistic setting.
- Q-data: self-report ratings of our characteristics, attitudes, and interests. Limitations: superficail self-awareness and participants may deliberately falsify their responses.
- T-data: "objective" tests (resistant to faking).
-
16PF TEST
- Based on 16 major source traits.
- Intended for ppl 16+ years of age.
- Responses scored objectively.
- Widely used to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational success.
-
RESEARCH ON CATTELL'S THEORY: 3 WAYS TO STUDY PERSONALITY
- Bivariate: standard laboratory experimental method (too restrictive).
- Clinical: case studies, dream analysis, free association, etc. (highly subjective).
- Multivariate: sophisticated statistical procedure of factor analysis. (highly specific data).
-
EYSENCK & OTHER TRAIT THEORISTS
-
BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
- Study of the relationship between genetic or hereditary factors and personality traits.
- Allport and Cattel among first to suggest role of inherited factors in personality.
-
DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
- Agreed with Cattell that personality is composed of traits derived by the factor analytic method but critical of Cattell's technique because of potential subjectivity.
- Personality Inventory with wife Sibyl.
- Superfactors: 3 Dimensions; combination of traits or factors.
- P: Psychoticism vs. Impulse Control.
- E: Extraversion vs. Introversion.
- N: Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability.
- Traits and dimensions tend to remain stable from childhood through adulthood.
-
EXTRAVERSION
- Extraverts: oriented toward the outside world; prefer company of other people.
- Sociable, impulsive, adventurous, assertive, dominant.
-
BIOLOGICAL/GENETIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRAVERTS VS. INTROVERTS
- Lower base level of cortical arousal in extraverts: seek excitement and stimulation to raise it.
- Higher levels of cortical arousal in introverts: shy away from stimulation and excitement; greater sensitivity to low-level stimuli, lower pain thresholds.
-
NEUROTICISM
- Neurotics: anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, moody.
- Eysenck: largely inherited; people genetically predisposed either toward neuroticism or toward emotional stability.
- Neurotics work better under stress.
- High neuroticism: greater activity in sympathetic branch of ANS(fight or flight).
- Chronic hypersensitivity, heightened emotionality.
-
PSYCHOTICISM
- Psychotics: aggressive, antisocial, tough-minded, cold, egocentric. Cruel, hostile, insensitive to the needs of others.
- Substance abuse and creativity.
- Large genetic component, also parenting.
- Mixed gender findings.
- Some support for criminality.
- Eysenck: diversity of all types needed; functioning determined by adaptation to social environment.
-
PRIMARY ROLE OF HEREDITY
- Traits and dimensions determined primarily by heredity; effects of environmental influences limited.
- Compared identical (monozygotic) to fraternal (dizygotic) twins.
- Adoption studies show more similarity with biological parents.
-
ROBERT McCRAE & PAUL COSTA: FIVE-FACTOR MODEL
- O: openness
- C: conscientiousness
- E: extraversion
- A: agreeableness
- N: neuroticism
- NEO-PI
-
CROSS-CULTURAL CONSISTENCY AND STABILITY
- 5 Factors found in 50+ diverse countries.
- Differences in relative importance and social desirability by culture.
- Stability shown from childhood to adulthood.
- Decrease in neuroticism from adolescence to adulthood.
-
EMOTIONAL CORRELATES
- High extraversion, low neuroticism: correlated with well-being, emotional stability.
- High agreeableness, high conscientiousness: greater emotional well-being.
- Extraversion: social support and positive emotions.
- Neuroticism and negative outcomes.
-
BEHAVIORAL CORRELATES
- High openness: wide range of interests, seek challenges.
- Conscientiousness: better grades, better work, and health outcomes.
- Agreebleness: fewer behavior problems.
- Overall: high predictive value of traits.
- Some controversy about number of factors.
-
ARNOLD BUSS & ROBERT PLOMIN: TEMPERAMENT THEORY
- Temperaments: building blocks of personality.
- 3 Temperaments: Emotionality, Activity, Sociability.
- Combine to form personality patterns.
- Two tests to assess personality: EAS, EASI.
-
GENETICS & ENVIRONMENT
- Research with twins: temperaments primarily inherited. Persist throughout lifespan.
- Recognized environmental influences. Inherit dispositions, whether they are realized depends on experience.
-
EAS MODEL
- EMOTIONALITY: level of arousal/excitability.
- ACTIVITY: physical energy and vigor. Inherited component to activity.
- SOCIABILITY: degree of preference for contact and interaction with others.
- All stable through childhood and adulthood.
-
EMOTIONALITY
- Distress, fearfulness, anger.
- Two extremes: Both extremes are maladaptive.
- People who are unemotional (nothing seems to disturb them).
- People who are very emotional (sensitive to slightest provocation).
-
SOCIABILITY
- High sociability: prefer group activities and company of others.
- Low sociability: prefer solitary activities and avoid others.
- Adaptive characteristic.
-
REFLECTIONS ON THE TRAIT APPROACH
- Strong biological component for personality.
- Caution to avoid rushing to extreme views.
- Personality: both genetics and environment.
-
ABRAHAM MASLOW: NEEDS-HIERARCHY THEORY
-
HUMANISM
- Founder and spiritual leader of humanistic psychology.
- Critical of behaviorism.
- Critical of psychoanalysis.
- Studied healthy, mature, creative people.
-
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT: HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
- 5 innate needs: activate and direct human behavior.
- Instinctoid: hereditary component.
- Learning and social influences.
- Arranged from strongest to weakest.
- Lower needs must be satisfied first.
- Onee need dominates at a time.
- Order of the needs can be changed.
-
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEDS
- The lower the need, the greater the strength and priority.
- Higher needs appear later in life.
- Lower needs called deficit or deficiency needs.
- Higher needs called growth or being needs.
- Satisfaction of higher needs is beneficial psychologically and leads to contentment and happiness.
- Good external circumstances needed for satisfaction of higher needs.
- Needs do not need to be fully satisfied before next need becomes important.
-
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
- Basic survival neeeds: food, water, air, sex.
- Relate to physiological deficiency.
- Rarely a concern for middle-class Americans.
- Major concern for poor people and those in third world countries.
-
SAFETY NEEDS
- Important drives for infants and neurotic adults.
- React to threat to security.
- Preference for structure or routine.
- Avoidance to new experiences.
- Preference for order over chaos.
-
BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS
- Expressed through close relationship with a friend, lover, or mate, or through social relationhsip formed within a group.
- Difficult to satisfy in a mobile society.
- Join a church, club, volunteer organization, etc.
- Need to give and receive love.
- Sex is a way to express the love need.
- Failure to meet this need is a fundamental cause of emotional maladjustment.
-
ESTEEM NEEDS
- Two forms: from ourselves and from others.
- From ourselves: self worth.
- From others: status and recognition.
- Satisfaction leads to feeling confident of our strength, worth, and adequacy.
- Failure to satisfy leads to inferiority feelings and feelings of helplessness.
-
SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEED
- Highest need.
- Self-Actualization: Fullest development of the self.
- Max. realization and fulfillment of our potentials, talents, and abilities.
- If self-actualization is not reached, we will be restless, frustrated, and discontent.
- Everyone is capable of reaching self-actualization.
-
NECESSARY CONDITION FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION
- Freedom from societal or self constraints.
- Freedom from distraction by the lower-order needs.
- Secure in our self image and relationships with others.
- Realistic knowledge of self.
-
COGNITIVE NEEDS
- Second set of innate needs: to know and to understand.
- Exist outside the hierarchy.
- Need to know stronger than the need to understand.
- Historical evidence places cognitive needs above safety needs.
- Emotionally healthy adults motivated to improve their knowledge.
- Must pursue or will become bored.
- Appear in late infancy and early childhood.
- Expressed as a natural curiosity.
- Necessary for self-actualization.
-
STUDY OF SELF ACTUALIZERS
- Metamotivation.
- Metaneeds.
- Metapathology.
-
METAMOTIVATION
- (B-motivation or Being)
- Max. personal potential and enriching one's life; developing from within, not striving for a particula goal.
- Motivation for people who are not self-actualizers: D-motivation or Deficiency--striving for something specific to make up for something that is lacking.
- Self-actualizers: concerned with fulfilling potential and knowing and understanding environment.
-
METANEEDS
- Stages of being.
- Failure to satisfy metaneeds is harmful and produces metapathology.
-
METAPATHOLOGY
Thwarting of self-development.
-
STUDY OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS
- Maslow estimated that they make up 1% of less of the population.
- Failure to become self-actualizing:
- higher the need, the weaker it is.
- inadequate education.
- improper child-rearing.
-
JONAH COMPLEX
Doubts about our own abilities; fear that maximizing our potential will lead to a situation with which we will be unable to cope.
-
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS
- Efficient perception of reality.
- Acceptance of themselves, others, and nature.
- A spontaneity, simplicity, and natrualness.
- A focus on problems outside themselves.
- A sense of detachment and the need for privacy.
- A freshness of appreciation.
- Mystical or peak experiences.
- Social interest.
- Profound interpersonal relations.
- A democratic character structure.
- Creativeness.
- Resistance to enculturation.
-
QUESTIONS ABOUT HUMAN NATURE
-
ASSESSMENT IN MASLOW'S THEORY
- Identified self-actualizers (Einstein, Jefferson, Eleanor Roosevelt) and used a variety of techniques to asses their personalities.
- Historical figures: biographical material.
- Living subjects: interviews, free association, projective tests.
- Personal Orientation Inventory (POI): self-report questionnaire developed by Everett Shostrom to measure self-actualization.
-
RESEARCH ON MASLOW'S THEORY
- Critics: methods were not rigorous or controlled.
- Pilot studies only.
- Agreed but self-actualizers could not be studied by accepted scientific procedures.
- Did not use: case studies, experimental or correlational methods.
- Support for hierarchy and self-actualization.
-
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
- Contemporary outgrowth of self-actualization theory.
- Facilitated by intrinsic motivation.
- 3 basic needs: Competence, Autonomy, Relatedness.
- Satisfaction of these needs and focus on intrinsic motivation positively correlated with high self-esteem and self-actualization.
|
|