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Organ:
Several types of tissue that together carry out specific functions
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Tissue:
A group of cells within a common structure
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Cell:
Basic units of living organisms
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Taproot system:
One main vertical root gives rise to lateral roots (branch roots)
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Lateral (branch) roots:
Roots extending away from the main (or taproot) root
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Fibrous root system:
Many lateral roots with no main root
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Adventitious roots:
Arise from stems or leaves
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Node (on a stem):
The stem region of a plant where one or more leaves attach
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Internode (on a stem):
The stem regions between nodes in plants
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Apical bud (terminal bud):
Shoot tip; allows elongation of a young shoot
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Axillary bud (lateral bud):
Buds born in the axil, has the potential to form a lateral shoot
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Blade (of a leaf):
Flattened portion of leaf
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Petiole (of a leaf):
Non-leafy part of leaf, attaches the leaf blade to the stem
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Leaf sheath:
Wraps around stem at the bottom
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Sessile leaf:
Directly attached to substrate
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Veins (of a leaf):
Vascular tissue, net-like network in leaves
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Tissue system:
Transports substances throughout the plant
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Epidermis:
Single layer of cells, covering outer body of plant
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Cuticle:
Waxy coating on surface of epidermis
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Periderm:
Replaces epidermis in woody plants
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Trichome:
Hair-like outgrowth of epidermal cells
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Meristem:
Perpetually embryonic tissue
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Apical meristem:
At the tip of roots, shoots, auxiliary buds, aid in primary growth
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Lateral meristem:
Ads thickness to woody plants, is secondary growth
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Vascular cambium:
Ads layers of vascular tissue
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Cork cambium:
Replaces the epidermis with periderm
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Primary growth:
Produces primary plant body
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Mesophyll: (middle-leaf)
Leaf ground tissue
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Palisade mesophyll:
Toward upper epidermis; photosynthesis
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Spongy mesophyll:
Toward lower epidermis; gas exchange
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Secondary growth:
Occurs in stems and roots of woody plants, ads width
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Early wood:
Grows early in the spring (cells have large diameters) secondary xylem
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Late wood:
Grows late summer and fall, secondary xylem
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Dendrochronology:
The analysis of tree ring growth patterns
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Heartwood:
Oldest, inner layers of xylem; non-functional
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Sapwood:
Outer functional layers of xylem
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Bark:
Periderm and secondary phloem
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Lenticels:
Pores in the periderm for gas exchange
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Transpiration:
(Process in xylem) Changes in turgor pressure w/in guard cells open/close stomata
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Translocation:
Process by which phloem transports products of photosynthesis
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What are the three basic organs found in plants?
(1) Roots (2) Stems (3) Leaves
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What functions do roots serve in plants?
Anchorage, absorbing water/minerals, storing organic materials
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What function do root hairs serve in plants?
Absorptions of water/minerals, increases surface area
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Types of modified root systems found in plants (structure/function):
- (1)prop roots: (ex. Corn) Grow out of stem, support plant
- (2) storage roots: (ex. Carrots, yams) Stores nutrients (3) aerial roots: (ex. Orchids) Absorbs nutrients from atmosphere
- (4)pneumatophores: (ex. Mangroves) Gas exchange
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What functions do stems serve in plants?
Conduits for nutrients and is the support structure for leaves
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Types of modified stems found in plants:
- rhizomes
- stolens
- tubers
- corms
- thorns
- tendrils
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Modified stem, structure and function of stolons
(ex. Grasses) Horizontal stem above ground-asexual reproduction
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Modified stem, structure and function of tubers:
(ex. Potatoes) Swollen root tip of rhizomes-asexual reproduction/storage
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Modified stem, structure and function of corms:
(ex. Gladiolus) Compressed modified stem-storage/asexual reproduction
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Modified stem, structure and function of thorns:
(ex. Roses) outgrowth of stem tissue-protection from herbivores
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Modified stem, structure and function of tendrils
(ex. Grapes) Climbing-support
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Modified stem, structure and function of rhizomes
(ex. ginger) Horizontal underground stems- asexual reproduction/storage
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What functions do leaves serve in plants?
Is the main photosynthetic organ in most vascular plants
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Type of modified leaves:
- bulbs
- tendrils
- spines
- storage
- reproduction
- carnivorous
- bracts
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Modified leaf, structure/function of tendrils
(ex. Peas) Climbing
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Modified leaf, structure/function of spines:
(ex. Cactus) outgrowth from stem-protection from herbivores
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Modified leaf, structure/function of storage leaves:
(ex. Aloe Vera) Flaccid leaves- water storage
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Describe the following types of modified leaves found in plants (basic structure and function) and give an example of each type:
reproductive:(ex. Kalanchloe) Leaves- asexual reproduction
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Modified leaf, structure/function of carnivorous leaves:
(ex.Venus fly trap) various structures- food intake
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Modified leaf, structure/function of bracts leaves:
(ex. Poinsettias) looks like petals- attracts pollinators
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Modified leaf, structure/function of bulb leaves:
(ex onions/garlic) fleshy leaves-storage
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What functions do the following tissues serve in plants?
dermal tissue:
Outer tissue, acts as covering
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What functions do the following tissues serve in plants?
Vascula tissue:
Moves water/nutrients throughout plant
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What functions do the following tissues serve in plants?
Xyem:
Composed of various cell types; moves water/nutrients from roots to leaves
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What functions do the following tissues serve in plants?
Phloem:
Composed of sieve tubes & companions; moves products of photosynthesis to needed regions in a plant
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What functions do the following tissues serve in plants?
Ground tissue:
Serves as structure, storage of nutrients and metabolism
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What functions do trichomes serve in plants?
Deters herbivores/insects, reduces pathogenic infection, reduces waterless, protects against UV radiation
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What is transported by xylem, and in what direction does it move within a plant?
Water/nutrients, conducts movement upward toward leaves
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What is transported by phloem and in what direction is it transported within a plant?
Products of photosynthesis, conducts movement of products throughout plant to needed areas
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What do we mean by “sources” and “sinks” in terms of sugar movement within a plant?
- Sources= where organic molecules are produced or stored
- Sinks= where organic molecules are needed for energy
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Describe determinate and indeterminate patterns of growth, as applied to plants.
Determinate plant growth occurs throughout its life, indeterminate growth stops after reaching certain size/maturity
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What function does the root cap serve in plants?
Protects the apical meristem
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What is the function of the endodermis in roots?
Controls what moves into the xylem
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What is the function of the pericycle in roots?
Outermost layer of vascular tissue where lateral roots arise
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What is the function of the vascular cambium in plants?
Produces secondary body of plant (xylem and phloem)
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What does secondary xylem become in a mature plant?
Wood
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What causes the “rings” we see in woody stems?
Secondary xylem- early wood and late wood
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What information can be obtained by analyzing tree rings?
The environment during the trees development & growth rate (ex. fires)
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Why is it NOT a good idea to girdle a tree (i.e., remove a strip of bark all the way around the tree)?
Strips off phloem which causes the tree to die (nutrient path destroyed)
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24. Explain how the following types of plants obtain nutrients – either in addition to or instead of photosynthesis:
epiphytes:
parasitic plants:
carnivorous plants:
- epiphytes: Grows on another plant but does not affect host
- parasitic plants: Grows on another plant absorbing sugar and minerals
- carnivorous plants: Obtains nitrogen from digesting prey
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Apical meristem initiates primary growth, producing primary xylem and primary phloem, as well as the vascular cambium.
Secondary growth occurs at the vascular cambium, which forms secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem (inner bark).
The cork cambium produces cork (outer bark).
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Anther:
Top of stamens filament; divided into pollen sacs which pollen grains form
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Pollen sac (microsporangium):
Structure of sporophyte where microspores are produced via meiosis
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Complete flower:
Contains 4 organs, sepals, petals, stamens (male organs), carpels (female organs)
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Incomplete flower:
Lacks 1 of 4 organs (sepals, petals, stamens, carpels)
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Inflorescence:
Clusters of flowers
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Generative cell (of a pollen grain):
Forms 2 sperm in pollen grain
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Tube cell (of a pollen grain):
Produces pollen tube
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Pollen tube:
Produced by pollen grain for sperm to reach egg
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Pollination:
Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
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Endosperm:
Food storage for developing embryo
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Cotyledons: (seed-leaves)
leaf like structure in seeds of flowering plants
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Accessory fruit:
Contains additional floral parts in addition to ovaries
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Fragmentation (as related to asexual reproduction in angiosperms):
Separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole plants
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Apomixis:
Asexual reproduction of seeds without fertilization
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Pollination syndrome:
Coevolved traits of flowers and pollinators
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What constitutes the male gametophyte in angiosperms?
Tube cell and generative cell
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What constitutes the female gametophyte in angiosperms?
(Embryo sac) Antipodal cells (3), Polar nuclei (2), Egg (1), Synergids (2)
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What does a fertilized ovule develop into?
A seed
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What does an ovary develop into (after fertilization) in angiosperms?
A fruit
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List the four modified leaves that make up a flower and give the function of each.
(1) Petal-attracts pollinators (2) Sepal- protection (3) Stamen-male reproductive organs (4) Carpels- Female reproductive organs
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Be familiar with the life cycle of angiosperms.
Seed, flower-Anther, microsporangium, microsporocyte (2n) meiosis, microspore (n) gametophyte in pollen grain, fertilization. Ovary, Ovule (2n), megasporangium (2n), meiosis, megaspore (n), fertilization. Seed (embryo, endosperm, seed coat)
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Understand the relationships among microsporangia, microsporocytes, microspores,
and male gametophytes in angiosperms.
Anther, Microsporangia, microsporocytes (2n), microspores (n) male gametophyte (tube cell and generative cell)
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Understand the relationships among megasporangia, megasporocytes, megaspores, and female gametophytes in angiosperms.
Megasporangium, Megasporocytes (2n), Megaspore (n), female gametophyte (embryo sac)
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What are the 8 nuclei that make up an embryo sac, and what are the functions of the various nuclei?
Antipodal cells (3) unknown function, Polar nuclei (2) make sperm and nutritive tissue, Egg (1) becomes seed, Synergids (2) attracts and guides pollen tube
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by wind:
Pollen grains are captured easily by shape/surface of flower
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by water:
Pollen grains can easily be dispersed via water for aquatic flowers
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by beetles:
The putrid odor produced by some flowers
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by bees:
nectar
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by butterfies:
fragrance of flowers
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by moths:
fragrance and colors of white or yellow
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by flies:
odor of rotten meat produced by some flowers
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by wasps:
nectar
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by birds:
nectar
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What characteristics of flowers would make them most likely to be pollinated by bats:
nectar and fragrance
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Explain what happens during double fertilization.
One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a diploid zygote. Other sperm combines with the polar nuclei, giving rise to the triploid (3n) food-storing endosperm
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Describe the basic structure of a seed.
Embryo, endosperm, hard protective coating
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What happens to the endosperm in most eudicot seeds?
Exported to cotyledons
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What directly nourishes the developing embryo in most eudicot seeds?
Cotyledons
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What directly nourishes the developing embryo in most monocot seeds?
Endosperm
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Why is seed dormancy considered an evolutionary advantage?
The seed can wait for a favorable environment before sprouting
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Describe the basic structure and developmental origin of the following fruit types.simple, aggregate and multiple fruit:
- simple fruit: Single carpel or several fused carpels
- aggregate fruit: Single flower with multiple, separate carpels
- multiple fruit: Group of flowers (inflorescence); the ovaries fuse into a single fruit
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What structural adaptations of fruits would make them most likely to be dispersed by water:
Water proof or buoyant
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What structural adaptations of fruits would make them most likely to be dispersed by wind
Wing or parachute shape
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What structural adaptations of fruits would make them most likely to be dispersed by carried on animals fur:
Spikey or barbed
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What structural adaptations of fruits would make them most likely to be dispersed by being eaten by animals:
Fleshy, good tasting
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What structural adaptations of fruits would make them most likely to be dispersed by being picked up and burried by animal:
Hard coating
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List the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction in angiosperms.
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Advantages: Requires only one parent, no need for a pollinator, can be beneficial to a successful plant in a stable environment. Disadvantages: is vulnerable to local extinction if there is an environmental change
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List the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction in angiosperms.
- Advantages: generates genetic variation that makes evolutionary adaptation possible in a changing environment seed dispersal seed dormancy
- Disadvantages: requires two parents (and possibly pollinators) seedlings are more vulnerable than vegetative propagules
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Cite four mechanisms that prevent (or greatly reduce) self-fertilization in angiosperms.
(1) have male and female flowers on separate plants (2) separate male and female flowers on the same plant (3) stamens and carpels that mature at different times, or are arranged to prevent self-pollination (4) Self-incompatibility, a plant’s genetic ability to reject its own pollen (blocks growth of pollen tube)
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Hormone:
Chemical signals that help coordinate growth, development, and responses to stimuli
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Tropism:
Any response resulting in curvature of organs toward stimulus
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Phototropism:
Growth towards light
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Gravitropism:
Growth regulated by gravity (roots down, shoots up)
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Thigmotropism:
Growth response to touch
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Cite the effects of natural auxin on plants that we discussed in class.
Controls lateral & adventitious root formation
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Cite the commercial uses of auxin (other than as an herbicide) that we discussed in class.
Rooting growth, production of seedless fruit, production of roots in culture dishes
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Why are synthetic auxins commonly used as herbicides on lawns, golf courses, and other turf areas?
Kills weeds (eudicots) but not grass (monocots)
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Cite the effects of natural cytokinin on plants that we discussed in class.
Lateral bud development
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Cite the commercial uses for cytokinin that we discussed in class.
Delaying senescence (aging/death of leaves)
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Cite the effects of natural gibberellin on plants that we discussed in class.
Stem elongation & cell division
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Cite the commercial uses of gibberellin that we discussed in class.
Production of dwarf varieties of plants (by reducing gibberellin)
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Cite the effects of natural abscisic acid on plants that we discussed in class.
Promotes seed dormancy
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Cite the commercial uses of abscisic acid that we discussed in class.
Applied to plants to withstand drought
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Cite the effects of natural ethylene on plants that we discussed in class.
Emits gas which signals other plants to start defense mechanisms
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Cite the commercial uses of ethylene that we discussed in class.
Stimulates fruit ripening
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What mechanisms are used by plants to help them tolerate drought stress?
Reduce transpiration by closing stomata, slow leaf growth, reduce exposed surface area, grow deeper roots
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What mechanism is used by plants to help them tolerate flooding?
Enzymatic destruction of root cortex cells creates air tubes that help plants survive oxygen deprivation during flooding
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What mechanisms are used by plants to help them tolerate salt stress?
Produces solutes which can tolerate high concentrations of salt
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What mechanism is used by plants to help them tolerate heat stress?
Heat-shock proteins help protect other proteins from heat stress
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What mechanisms are used by plants to help them tolerate cold stress and / or
freezing?
Alter lipid composition of membranes
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What are the two basic types of defenses used by plants against herbivores / insects?
(1) Physical (thorns, spines, thick cuticle, trichomes) (2) Chemical ( distasteful or toxic compounds)
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Explain how the “hypersensitive response” helps pants defend themselves against pathogens.
Cell death around infection (to starve pathogen), produce agent to kill pathogen, builds wall around pathogen
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Explain how “systemic acquired resistance” helps plants defend themselves against pathogens.
Makes defense genes throughout plant (like a vaccine
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What are the primary metabolites of plants? (necessary for life)
Simple sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids (and the macromolecules they make up)
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What are the three most common classes of secondary metabolites in plants?
(1) Alkaloids (2) Terpenoids (3) Phenolics
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List 6 basic functions of plant secondary metabolites.
(1) Chemical signals that enable plants to respond to environmental cues (2) Defense against herbivores (3) Defense against pathogens (4)Defense against competitors (5) Protection from UV radiation (6) Aid in pollen and seed dispersal
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