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What does VSEPR stand for and what is it used for?
- Valence shell electron pair repulsion
- To determine the shape of individual molecules based upon the extent of electron-pair electrostatic replusion
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The chemistry numbers
- 1. Meth
- 2. Eth
- 3. Prop
- 4. But
- 5. Pent
- 6. Hex
- 7. Hept
- 8. Oct
- 9. Non
- 10. Dec
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What is the difference between an alkane and an alkene?
Alkanes have only a single bond between carbon atoms and are said to be saturated
Alkenes have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms and are unsaturated
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Chemical make up and structure of Lactic Acid
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What isomer is most naturally occurring?
Cis
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What isomer is not usually naturally occuring and bad for the body?
Trans
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Whats a common triester?
Oils
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11 Common Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry
- Alkene
- Alkyne
- Alcohol
- Amine
- Aldehyde
- Amide
- Carboxylic Acid
- Ester
- Ether
- Haloalkane
- Ketone
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Four Hydrocarbon Types
- Alkane
- Alkene
- Alkyne
- Aromatic
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what makes vinegar?
The air oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid
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What has pleasant fruit like oders?
Esters
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Liquids that mix in all proportions
Miscible
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Amines containing a hydrogen bonded to nitrogen can undergo condensation reactions with carbosylic acids to form:
Amides
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what are the building blocks for all proteins?
a-amino acids, substance located on the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylic acid group
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General formula for an a-amino acid:
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What is the arrangement of amino acids along a protein chain called?
Primary Structure
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What is it called when the segments of a protein chain are oriented in a regular pattern?
Secondary Structure
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Two common structural motifs:
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What is the process by which the protein dopts its biologically active shaping called?
Folding
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What is it called when a protein is in its folded form?
Tertiary structure
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The three types of intermolecular attractions between neutral molecules:
- dipole-dipole attractions
- London dispersion forces
- hydrogen bonding
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The attractive force between and ion and the partial charge of a polar molecule:
ion-dipole force
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What is a dipole-dipole force?
When the positive end of one molecule is near the negative end of another
Usually weaker than ion-dipole forces
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Whats the relation between polarity and intermolecular attractions for molecules of approx equzl mass and size?
The strengths of intermolecular attractions increase with increasing polarity
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The attractive force of an atom or molecule becoming instantaneously dipole and attachting to a another is called:
London dispersion force
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The ease with which the electron distribution in a molecule is distorted is called:
polarizability
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What does the strength of the dispersion force depend on?
the ease with which the charge distribution in a molecule can be distorted to induce a momentary dipole
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Whats the relation between dispersion forces and molecular weight?
Dispersion forces tend to increase in strength with increasing molecular weight
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The special type of intermolecular attraction between the hydrogen atom in a polar bond and nonbonding electron pair on a nearby small electronegative ion or atom
Hydrogen bonding
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The resistance of a liquid to flow is called:
Viscosity
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What is the relation between a liquids viscosity and its flow rate?
The greater the viscosity the more slowly it flows
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What is the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit amount?
Surface tension
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What is the intermolecular forces that bind similar molecules to one another?
Cohesive forces
example: hydrogen bonding in water
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What is the intermolecular foces that bind a substance to a surface called?
Adhesive forces
example: when whater adheres to the side of a glass tube
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What is the rise of liquids up very narrow tubes called?
capillary action
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What are the phase changes going from low energy to higher?
- Melting
- Sublimation
- Vaporization
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What are the phase changes going from high energy to low?
- Condensation
- Deposition
- Freezing
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What is the increased freedom of motion of the molecules or ions measured by?
- Heat of Fusion
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- Enthalpy of Fusion
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What is the energy required to cause a liquid tomove into the gaseous state called?
- Heat of Vaporization
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- Enthalpy of Vaporization
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What is the ernergy required to cause solid to be transformed into gas called?
Heat of Sublimation
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What is it called when heat is removed from a liquid so rapidly that the molecules literally have no time to assume the ordered structure of a solid?
Supercooling
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What is the highest termperature at which a distinct liquid phase can form called?
Cirtical temperature
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The condition in which two opposing processes are occurring simultaneously at equal rates is called:
Dynamic Equilibrium
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What happens when liquid and vapor states are in dynamic equilibrium?
The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapor
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Liquids that evaporate readily are:
Volatile
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Whats a graphic way to summarize the conditions under which equilibria exist between the different states of matter?
A phase diagram
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Explain why liquid water is more dense than solid water in 8 steps.
- 1. In ice, the H2O molecules assume an ordered, open arrangement
- 2. This arrangement optimizes the hydrogen bonding interactions between molecules
- 3. Each Molecule forming hydrogen bonds to four other H2O molecules
- 4. These hydrogen bonds create open cavities
- 5. When ice melts the motions of the moelcules cause the structure to collapse
- 6. Hydrogen bonding in the liquid is more random than in ice
- 7. but it is strong enough to hold the molecules close together.
- 8. So liquid water is more dense bc the given mass of water occupies a smaller volume than the same mass of ice
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Explain why hydrogen bonds are so strong in 5 steps
- 1. The Hydrogen has no inner core of elections
- 2. so the + side of the bonddipole has the concentrated charge of the partially exposed, nearly bare proton of the hydrogen nucleus
- 3. This positive charge is attracted to the negative charge of an electronegative atom in a nearby atom
- 4. Bc the electron poor hydrogen is so small, it can aproach an electronegative atom very closely
- 5. THUS strong interaction
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What makes visocsity increase?
Molecular weight, bc the longer the strands the more spagetti like they are
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What makes visocsity decrease?
Higher temperatures that would break the spagetti bonds
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Explain how surface tension happens in 6 steps
- 1. H2O molecules inside are attracted equally in all directions
- 2. molecules on the surface only have their friends on the sides and below
- 3. the resultant inward force pulls molecules from the surfaceinto the interior
- 4. This reduces the surface area
- 5. The makes the molecules at the surface pack closely together
- 6. bc spheres have the smallest surface area for their volume, water droplets assume an almost spherical shape.
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How is surface tension measured?
by the energy required to increase the surface area by overcoming the inward forces. Some unit amount by some special equation.
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Vapor Pressure Part 1 in 5 steps
- 1. Any instant some molecules ona surface of a liquid possess kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces of their neighbors
- 2. They escape......into the gas phase
- 3. If the attractive forces are weaker........
- 4. The easier the escape and the more that will join
- 5. This will highten the vapor pressure
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Vapor Pressure part II
- 1. Continuously molecules are being recaptured and escape again
- 2. The more that escape, the higher amount that is caught
- 3. Eventually, the prision slows this down and theres a strange balance of escapees and those that are forever caught
- 4. This is a constant pressure of the vapor that is called................
- 5. Dynamic equilibrium
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Normal Boiling Point (vs. what?) 4 steps
- 1. Liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the external pressure acting on the surface
- 2. The temp at which it boils increases with increasing external pressure
- 3. The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr) is considered "normal"
- 4. Water boils at 100 degrees C
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atoms, ions, or molecules are ordered in well-defined three-dimensional arrangements.
Cystalline solid
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solid in which particles have no orderly structure, lack well-defined shape.
Amorphous solid
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When lattice points are at the corners the unit cell is called
Primitive cubic
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When a lattice point occurs at the corners and at the center of the unit cell it is called
Body-centered cubic
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When the lattice points at the center of each face and at each norner it is called
face-centered cubic
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Molecular Solids
- * atoms or molecules held together by IMF's
- * soft
- * melts easy
- * most gas or liquid @ room temp
- * not soluble
- * not conductive
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Covalent-network
- * covalently bonded with atoms
- * very hard
- * doesn't melt
- * insoluble
- * not conductive
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Ionic Solid
- * positive and negative ions
- * Hard and Brittle
- * electrostatic attractions
- * melts
- * water soluble
- * conducts electricity only in water
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Metallic Solids
- * metallic bonds
- * soft to very hard
- * atoms
- * low to hight melting points
- * MALLEABLE AND DUCTILE
- * conductive in water
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Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol
H2O + Ester
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Carboxylic Acid + Amine
H2O + Amide
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Alcohol + Alcohol
H2O + Ether
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Same molecular formula, different molecular structure
Isomers
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Differ in the way the atoms are connected (there are many of these).
Structural
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Same in the way the atoms are connected, but they differ due to their position in space.
Geometric Isomers
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Geometric Isomers:
Cis & Trans
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What breaks when food is cooked?
a-helix structure
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*occurs when temp of isolated system increases due to evolution of heat
* Heat is released into the surrounding area
* Negative quantity for the heat of the rxn
Exothermic
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* Temp of isolated system decreases
* surroundings gain heat
* Overall positive hear of rxn
Endothermic
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ionic bond is:
a metal and nonmetal
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Base name for ionic bonds
-ide
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base name for molecular bonds
-ide
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base name for binary acids
-ic
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base name for oxyacids -ate(4 O's):
-ic
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base name for oxyacids -ite (3 O's)
-ous
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Type I Ionic naming:
- Name of cation(metal)
- + base name of anion
- + -ide
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Type II Ionic naming:
- Name of cation
- + charge of cation(roman numerals, paranthesis)
- +base name of anion
- +-ide
- =FeCl3
- = Iron(III) Chloride
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Molecular Naming
- Prefix
- +name of 1st element
- +prefix
- +base name of 2nd element
- +ide
- =P2O5
- =diphosphorus pentoxide
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Binary Acid Naming
- hydro
- +base name of nonmetal
- +ic
- +acid
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Oxyacid -ate naming
- Base name of oxyanion
- +ic
- +acid
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Oxyacids -ite naming
- base name of oxyanion
- +ous
- +acid
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- * Trigonal bipyramidal
- * dsp3
- * 5 orbitals
- * 120 & 90 degrees
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- * linear
- * sp
- * 2 orbitals
- * 160 degrees
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- * Tetrahedral
- * sp3
- * 4 orbitals
- * 109.5 degrees
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- * trigonal planar
- * sp2
- * 3 orbitals
- * 120 degree
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- * pentagonalbipyramidal
- * d3sp3
- * 7 orbitals
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Point between vapour, liquid and supercritical fluid on phase diagram
Critical point
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Point towards bottom between solid, liquid and vapour on phase diagram
where all forms of matter are present
Triple point
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A supercritical fluid is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point.
Super critical fluid
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Relation between IMF's and vapor pressure
The stronger the IMF's the lower the vapor pressure will be
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ATM pressure and heat relation
The lower the atm pressure is then the lower the heat is required
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Why is benzene stronger?
BC its flat-like plates, therefore making it easy to stack and form strong bonds to each other
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Why is H2O so strong?
Because it has alot of donors and acceptors 2 and 2
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What is the same size of cystalline solid atoms?
wave lengths, can use x-rays to gather info
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really high pressure
normal temperature
Critical point
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highest temperature that a gas can be condensed into a liquid
Critical temp
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This is required to condense the gas @ the critical temperature
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Super high pressures create
- Super critical fluids/conditions
- ~not really a fluid, just molecules packed very close together
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Two different solid states on the same graph
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What type of allotrope structure does diamond have?
Tetrahedral
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What type of allotrope structure does graphite have?
trigonal planar
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