A&P CHAP 1

studies the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

concerns the function of the body, how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities

*the study of function at many levels

- the study of large body structures visible with the naked eye

Regional Anatomy: all the strucures in one region are studied at the same time, such as the abdomen

Systemic Anatomy: body structure is studied system by system, for example the cardiovascular system

Surface anatomy: study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface. (used for a nurse to find a vein to draw blood or to take a pulse)

-deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

Cystology: study of cells

Histology: study of tissues

-traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span

Embryology: concerns developmental changes before birth

• 1. Anatomical Terminology
• 2. Observation
• 3. Manipulation
• 4. Palpitation (feeling organs with your hand on a living person)
• 5. Auscultation (listening to organ sounds with a stethoscope)

-most subdivisions deal with the operation of specific organ systems

Renal Physiology: concerns kidney function

Neurophysiology: explains the workings of the nervous system

Cardiovascual physiology: examines the operation of the heart and the blood vessels

• 1. Ability to focus on many levels (from systemic to cellular to molecular)
• 2. Basic physics principles
• 3. Basic chemistry principles

** function ALWAYS reflects structure

-what a structure can do always depends on its specific form

• Chemical level
• Cellular level
• Tissue Level
• Organ System Level
• Organismal Level

Chemical level: atoms and molecules which make up...

Cellular level: cells and their functions (organelles). A group of similar cells is called a....

Tissue level: The similar cells that have a common function group together. 2 (more commonly 4) tissue types create an...

Organ system level: These organs work together to accomplish a common purpose (such as the cardiovascular system)

Organismal level: the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive (aka, the whole person)

• 1. Integmentary system
• 2. Skeletal system
• 3. Muscular System
• 4. Nervous System
• 5. Endocrine System
• 6. Cardiovascular System
• 7. Lymphatic System
• 8. Respiratory System
• 9. Digestive System
• 10. Urinary System
• 11. Reproductive System

Includes: hair, skin, and nails

Accomplishes: a protectant barrier, sweats, helps regulate body temperature, produces vit. D

Includes: bones, joints, tendons, ligaments, cartilages

Accomplishes: body support, protects internal organs, levers for muscular action, red bone marrow produces blood cells

Includes: Skeletal Muscles

Accomplishes: generates heat, contracts to allow movement, manipulation of the enviornment, and facial expressions

Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, and sensory receptors

accomplishes: allows body to detect changes in stimilu and react appropriately through feedback mechanisms

Includes: thyroid, thymus gland, pituitary gland, pineal gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries and testes

accomplishes: helps maintain homeostasis, produces and regulates hormones, promotes growth and development

includes: Heart, blood vessels, blood

accomplishes: primarily a transport system that catties blood containing O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, ions, hormones, and other substances to and from the tissue cells where exchanges are made, blood is propelled by the heart, antibodies and protiens in the blood act to protect the body

includes: red bone marrow, thymus, lymph noes, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct

accomplishes: picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood, cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris, houses lymphocytes which act via the immune response to protect the body

Includes: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, broncus, and lungs

Accomplishes: keeps blood supplied with O2 while removing CO2, contributes to the PH balance in blood

Includes: oral cavity, esophogus, liver, stomache, small isntestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

Accomplishes: break down digested food into nutrients, indigested residue leaves body through fecal waste

includes: kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

Accomplishes: rids body of nitrogen containing waste such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid. maintains water, electrolye and acid-base balance of blood

Includes: Male- prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, ductus defens. Female- vagina, uterus, uterine tune, mammary glands, and ovaries

Accomplishes: provides sperm/germ cells, female also provides eggs/germ cells, uteras houses developing fetus, mammary glands provide nurishment for baby

• 1. Maintaing boundaries
• 2. Movement
• 3. Responsiveness (Irritability)
• 4. Digestion
• 5. Metabolism
• 6. Excretion
• 7. Reproduction
• 8. Growth

The integmentary system keeps the inside distinct from the outside to prevent harmful changes such as the drying out of organs

On a cellular level, the limiting membrane maintains the boundary

Occurs when out skeletal muscles move our bodies or manipulate our enviornment. The skeletal system provides structure for this movement while the cardiovascual system and smooth muscles help to propell substances such as nutrients through the body.

On a cellular level, the ability to shorten the muscles for movement is called contractility

The ability to sense changes (which serve as simili) in the enviornment and repond to them

This is an involuntary action like when you retract in pain or you breath harder due to a raised CO2 level in your blood.

The nervous system is the most irritable and therefore the most responsible (nerve cells), although all cells are irritable to some extent

the breaking down of digested food stuffs into simple molecules that can be absorbed by the blood

the digestive system breaks it down and the cardiovascular system distributes it through the body cells and moves the waste to disposal organs

A broad term including ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT OCCUR WITHING BODY CELLS

Catabolism: breaking down substances into their simplest forms

Anabolism: sythesizing more complex cellular structures from their simplest forms

Cellular respiration: using nutrients and oxygen to create ATP

Metabolism depends on the digestive system and the respiratory system to make nutrients and oxygen available for the cardiovascular system to distribute to body cells. It is largely regulated by hormones secreted from the endocrine system

The process of removing excreta/waste.

The digestive system rids the body of indigestible food residues in feces, while the urinary system rids the body of Nit. rich urea, uric acid, and ammonia is urine, and the respiratory system rids the body of CO2

occurs on a cellular level through cellular reproduction

creating a whole new person is the mail goal

Controlled by the hormones of the endocrine system

Increase in size of a body part or of the organism

Happens through the multiplication of cells, although individual cells become larger when not dividing.

For true growth to occue, constructive activies must be happening faster than destructive activities

• 1. Nutrients
• 2. Oxygen
• 3. Water
• 4. Normal Body Temp
• 5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure

Contain the most chemical substances for energy and cell building

• carbs--> energy
• protiens--> essential for building cellular structures
• fats-->storehouse for energy
• viatmins and minerals--> used for chemical reactions

about 20% of the air we breath is O2

ATP production requires oxygen, so without it we die.

A combo of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems make O2 available to body cells

The most abundant substance in our body at 60-80% of our body weight.

Provides watery enviornment for chemical reactions and a fluid base for secretions and excretions

98.6 degees F or 37 degrees C

At either extreme, death occurs.

• Lower-metabolic reactions become slower until they stop
• Higher- chemical reactions occur at fast pace and protiens lose their shape and stop functioning

it is the job of the muscular system to generate heat

The force that air exerts on the body

Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depends on the atmospheric pressure being appropriate

at hight alt. where the air is thin, gas exchange may be inadequate to support cellular metabolism

The ability for the body to maintain a relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously

its a dynamic state of equilibrium

Involves continual monitering and reguation of many cariables

*key is communication throughout the body, chiefly through the nervous system

Receptor: some type of sensor which monitors the enviornment and responds to stimili by sending input to the control center through the afferent pathway

Control Center: determines the set point (the level or range at which the variable can be maintained) and analyzes the input. It determines the correct response and this output goes along the efferent highway to the effector

Effector: provides the means for the control center's output to the stimulus. The results of the response 'feedback' to influence the effect of the stimulus

The output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity

cause the variable to change in a way OPPOSITE to that of the initial change RETURNING it to the 'ideal' value

All negative feedback mechanisms have the same goal: preventing sudden, severe changes within the body

The result of the response ENHANCES the originial stimulus so that the response is ACCELERATED

It deviates FURTHER from the original change

used to control infrequent events that do not need continual adjustment

ex: blood clotting, labor contractions

They set off a series of events which are self perpetuating, like a waterfal. Often referred to as CASCADES

the body is erect with feet slightly apart; palms face forward with thumbs away from the body.

this position is important for directional terms and also so that everyone can stay on the same page

Superior (top or on top) vs. Inferior (below)

Anterior (in front of or the front) vs. posterior (behind or the back)

Medial/sagittal (towards the midline) vs. lateral (towards the outside)

Proximal (close to the start of a limb) vs. distal

superficial (external) vs. deep (internal)

*2 major divisions: axial (head, neck, trunk) and appendicular (appendages or limbs)

• Axial
• -cephalic
• -cervical
• -thoracic (front)/dorsal (back)
• -abdominal
• -pubic

• Appendicular
• -upper limb
• -manus
• -lower limb
• -pedal

Sagittal Plane: divides the body into left and right sides. down the middle is called midsagittal and on the side is parasagittal

Frontal place: Divides body into posterior and anterior. also called the coronal plane

Transverse plane: dives the body into superior and inferior, or cross sections.

Dorsal

Ventral

• 1. Cranial Cavity- houses brain
• 2. Vertebral cavity- encloses spinal cord

• 1. Thoracic cavity
• A. Pleural cavity: holds the two lungs lateral to the mediastinum cavities
• B. Superior mediastinum and pericardial cavity within mediastinum (holds the heart)

*seperated by the diaphram*

• 2. Abdominopelvic Cavity
• A. Adominal cavity- holds the stomache, liver, pancreas, kidneys, intestines, spleen, and other organs
• B. Pelvic cavity- contains urinary blasser, reproductive organs, and rectum

Doubles layered membrane called SEROSA or SEROUS membrane cover the walls of the body cavity and the organs

• 1. Parietal Serosa- part of the membrane that covers the walls
• 2. Visceral Serosa- part of the membran that covers the organs

*inbetween is a thin layer of SEROUS fluid to keep the organs from rubbing against one another

The serous membrans are named for the specific organs and cavities they cover

-perietal pericardium and visceral pericardium

-parietal pleurae and visceral pleurae

-parietal paritoneum (covers abdomen) and visceral paritoneum (covers organs)

• 1. Oral and digestive cavities
• 2. nasal Cavitiy
• 3. orbital cavitiy
• 4. middle ear cavities
• 5. synovial cavities (joint cavities)