Anatomy & Physiology

ATP

ATP

oxidation of foodstuffs

energy-requiring cellular processes

oxidative phosphorylation

energy-depleted form

• Protection
• Thermoregulation
• Somatosensory perception
• Vitamin D synthesis

• Keratinocytes
• Melanocytes
• Immunocytes

• wear-resistance
• waterproof qualities

Involves the expenditure of extra energy from the cell's own energy reserves. Result in net movement of solute uphill against a concentration gradient.

One solute may be exchanged for another in a process of exchange.

Proteins that actually bind individual solute molecules on one side of the membrane and release the solute on the opposite side of the membrane.

Barrel-shaped pores that enclose a small water-filled passage through which solutes diffuse as if in free solution.

Multiple solues of differenttypes may need to bind to the carrier before all are translocated.

Movement of a substance due to the randome movement of its individual particles.

Factor that determines the rate of net movement of a substance by diffusion.

Charge separation generated by this process can be measured as an electrical voltage between the two chambers.

Changes the regulated variable in the direction of the setpoint.

Proteinaceous substances. Essential to life by acting like catalysts in promoting at the cell temperature usually reversible reactions.

Magnitude of the equilibrium potential (E) is directly related to the magnitude of the concentration gradient, since one must balance the other.

Solutions in which the osmotic concentration of the cytoplasm is approximately 300 mOsmoles/liter.

Respond to the binding of messenger substances from inside or outside the cell.

Splits 1 ATP, mediates ejection of 3 Na+ from the cell in exchange for 2 K+ moved from outside to in.

Chemical signals between neurons and neurons or between neurons and muscle cells.

Respond to changes in membrane potential.

Attachment of a phosphate group [PO4] at a specific site on the protein by another enzyme, kinase.

Activity of an enzyme can be regulated by phosphorylation.

Energy captured in catabolic processes is used to assemble simple molecules from food into the proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other macromolecules needed for cellular growth and maintenance.

• Number of protons in the nucleus.
• Establishes the chemical identity of the atom.

Sum of the numbe of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

• Reactions in which the cell extracts energy from chemical sources in the environment.
• Reactions that convert complex molecules from the food into simple ones that can be used to construct new molecules.

• Oxidation process:
• ATP used in cellular activities is rapidly regenerated by the cell's energy metabolism.

Forms when there is interaction between the orbitals of the outermost energy levels of two atoms.

• Processes that form or break chemical bonds.
• Results in the formation of new compounds.

Substances composed of molecules of the same type.

Removal of H+ from one reactant and OH- from the other allows formation of molecules of water and bond between the two reactants, creating disaccharides from monosaccharides.

Atoms connected by a polar bond.

• Compounds
• Incorporate ionic bonds that are typically separated into their component ions in water solution.

Reproductive cell that has 22 somatic chromosomes and either an X or a Y chromosome.

Result of fact that hydrogen-nitrogen and hydrogen-oxygen bonds are polar covalent.

• Remove repressors
• Prevent repressors from binding to DNA.

Formed when an element readily gives up electrons reacts with an element that readily accepts them.

• Exist in multiple forms with different enzymatic properties.
• Products of separate genes.

Different orms of molecules with the same chemical formula.

Different forms of the same element having the same number of protons but differing in the number or neutrons.

Exist in multiple forms with different enzymatic properties.

Number of grams of solute per liter of water, divided by the solute's molecular weight.

Total of all of the atomic weights of its components expressed in grams.

• First step in gene expression.
• DNA unwound, complementary strand of mRNA assembled using 1 strand as template. Catalyzed by RNA polymerase.

Parts of the amino acid sequence are clipped off or two or more polypeptides are attached together to form a functional complex.

Order of amino acids in the protein chain.

Working copies of individual sentences that are made in the form of a single strand of comlementary mRNA.

In a chemical reaction, elements or compounds that were not present in that form initially.

Fully structured proteins that may associate with one another to form functional units.

• Oxidation-reduction.
• One atom donates one or more electrons to another atom.
• Donor atom becomes oxidized.
• Recipient becomes reduced.

Established by folding, coiling, or pleating the chain at particular regions of the primary sequence to form motifs.

Causes mRNA to attach itself to the ER.

Measure of the max amount of a substace that can be held in solution.

Variant forms of molecules that differ in the orientation of a key functional group.

Enzyme's reactants

Recognizes particular amino acids and adds them to the growing polypeptide chain.

At the point of the fusion of three the ilium, ischium, and pubis in which a deep socket articulates with the head of the femur.

Posterior surface of the scapula bears a prominent spine that widens at its lateral end to form an articulation with the clavicle.

Outer tough part of the intervertebral discs.

Point at which the coronol suture unites with the sagittal suture.

• Project posteriorly from the centurm.
• Support the 2 superior and 2 inferior articular processes.

Point at which the coronal suture unites with the sagittal suture.

Forms the heel.

• Thyroid secretion.
• Protects against increases in plasma Ca++ by stimulating bone formation.

One of two condyles at the distal end of the humerus that articulates with the radius.

Depression in which the intervertebral disc rests.

• Attachment of the biceps muscle.
• Attachment for ligaments that bind the clavicle to the scapula.

Connect the medial meniscus with the medial epicondyle.

Membrane containing osteoblasts and osteoprogenitor cells.

Joint with the humerus of the arm.

Flat ligament that binds the radius and the ulna.

Serves as a guide for a tendon of the biceps muslce that attaches at the rim of the glenoid cavity.

Located in the center of the superior edge of the manubrium section of the sternum.

• At the juncture of the lambdoidal and sagittal sutures.
• Formd when this fontanel closes.

• Extends toward the midline from each articular process.
• Forms a roof over the vertebral foramen.

With the medial condyle of the tibia, articulates with those of the femur to form the knee joint.

Superior section of the sternum.

• Within the intervertebral discs.
• Soft interior surrounded by a tough outer annulus fibrosus.

Membranous capsule that surrounds most cartilaginous structures.

Membrane surrounding the bone.

Exists at the juncture of lambdoidal and sagittal sutures.

• Hyaline
• Fibrous
• Elastic

• Fibrous
• Cartilagionous
• Synovial

bound tightly together.

• Early in the refractory period.
• Period of restimulation is effectively impossible.

• Neurotransmitter.
• Interacts with receptors on the muscle fiber to initiate an action potential.

• Protein component of the sarcomere.
• Thin polymerized filaments in the contractile machinery.

Rapid, brief changes in the membrane potential of a neuron or muscle cell.

Determined by subtracting the predetermined passive tension curve from the total tension curve.

Muscles that are responsible for a particular movement.

Attaches thin filaments to Z disc and determines their spacing.

Connective tissue extends beyond the muscle to form a sheet-like aponeurosis.

Consists of thin filaments composed of polymerized actin and thick filaments composed of aggregations of myosin.

• Actin
• Myosin

When the arrangement of the fascicle converge from a broad origin toward a tendon so that the muscle has a fan shape.

Enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from CrP to ADP and from ATP to Cr.

• Attachents made by myosinheads to actin binding sites.
• Generate force during muscle contraction.

• Attaches some of the network of actin thin filament within the interior of smooth muscle cells.
• Equivalent of the Z disc in striated muscle.

Layer of connective tissue that wraps each individual muscle fber.

Results in a detectable mechanical response of the muscle, as the action potential sweeps across the muscle cell surface.

Bundles of fibers enclosed in connective tissue sheaths of perimysium.

• Type II.
• Skeletal muscle fibers.
• Expresses a myosin that cycles more rapidly than that expressed by Type I fibers.

Force delivered by a muscle may increase in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus delivered to its motor nerve.

Make durable end-to-end connections between the plasma membrane of adjacent fibers in cardiac muscle.

• Muscle is not allowed to shorten.
• Tension does develop in the muscle.

Muscle is allowed to shorten and lift a load.

Measurable delay between muscle excitation and the onset of tension development or shortening in the muscle.

Curve shows that the active tension is maximal when the muscle is near its rest length.

• Muscle not connected by gap junctins.
• Typically not spontaneously active.

Formed by T tubules lying between two terminal cisternae

• Protein component of the sarcomere.
• Aggregations of thick filaments in the contractile machinery.

• MLCK
• Enzyme that phosphorylates a portion of the myosin head.

• Structural protein.
• Associated with thin filaments.
• Molecular yardstic.
• LImits the length of thin filaments.

• Within heart muscle.
• Spontaneously active.
• Serve as pacemakers for the entire heart.

• Optimal range of contractile performance.
• Created by the leverage arrangements imposed by the skeleton that restricts muscle lengths.

Sustained increase in oxygen uptake that follows exercise.

Some heart muscle fibers that are spontaneously active.

Curve of passive tension has a value of zera at rest length and rises as the length is made greater than rest lengthe.

• Second messages set in motion by autonomic transmitters.
• Control release of Ca++ from the intracellular stores without involvement of a change in membrane potential.

• Slowly fatiguing Type IIa fibers.
• Contains some myoglobin.

Rotation of the head that applies force to the thin filament.

Type I fibers that are red color due to myoglobin.

Follows each action potential.

More difficult to restimulate the muscle.

Skeletal muscles that are removed from the body assume a standard length.

Basic functional unit of the contractile machinery of striated muscle.

• SR
• Site within the cell where Ca++ is stored.

• Stretch components.
• Part of the contractile machinery.

• Contains extensive gap junction connections.
• Makes possible for large number of neighboring cells to contract simultaneously as if they were one unit.

• Type 1.
• Skeletal muscle fibers.
• Expresses a myosin that cycles less rapidly than that expressed by Type II fibers.

Branch of motor system that controls skeletal muscle.

Force summation in muscle generated by newly added motor units to increase fore production summates with the force produced by the units already active.

• Protein components of sarcomeres:
• Nebulin
• Titin
• CapZ
• Alpha actinin

• In muscle contraction.
• Muscle restimulated within a few tens of msec, force or shortening generated in second twitch can summate, making a stepwise increase in tension or decrease in length.

Formed by SR near the Z disc of each sarcomere.

Smooth rise in muscle tension or decrease in length resulting from the further reduction of the interval between successive impulses.

Double strands of polymerized actin.

• Connects ends of thick filaments to Z disc.
• Prevents sarcomeres from falling apart.
• Responsibe for the series elastic properties of muscle.

• Finger-like projection of plasma membrane.
• Project into the interior of the muscle fiber.
• Pass close to each terminal cisterna.

• Protein components of the endfeet.
• Sense the action potentia passing along the T tubule.

• Rapidly fatiguing Type IIb fibers.
• Contains some myoglobin.

• Part of the contractile machinery of the muscle.
• Thin filaments are attached.

• Effort -- Fulcrum -- Load
• Load arm shorter than effort arm: mechanical advantage.

• Effort -- Load -- Fulcrum
• Closer the load to the fulcrum: greater mechanical advantage.

• Load -- Effort -- Fulcrum
• Disadvantage increases with the length of the load arm.

• Tropomyosin
• Troponin

• Lies along the thin filament.
• Controls myosin access to actin binding sites.
• Regulatory protein.

• Ca++ binding potein.
• Attached to thin filament at intervals.
• Switches tropomyosin away from actin binding sites, permitting interaction between actinand myosin.
• Regulatory protein.

myosin heads to actin binding sites.

Cranial nervethat innervates the muscle that abducts the eye.

• Endocrine glands.
• Modified sympathetic ganglia.

Membrane potential is even more inside negative than at rest.

• Smaler and less important fiber tracts.
• Connct corresponding parts of the right and left halves of te CNS.

• Located within the spinocerebellar pathway.
• Carry info from muscle and joint receptors to the cerebellum.

• In the cerebral cortex.
• Forms unified picture of the sensory world.
• Associates key elements of it with the resources of past experiences.
• Formulates complex behaviors.

• Class of glial cells in the CNS.
• Control composition and volume of fluid microenvironmen that surrounds centrl neurons.

• Part of the PNS.
• Supplies motor innervation to the viscera.

• Islands of neuronal cell bodies in the central white matter.
• Control movement.

• Crossbar of the H.
• Central commissure.
• Contains the hollow central canal.

Crossbar of the H.

Coordinates and smooth body movements, particularly rapid ones.

• Connects 3rd and 4th ventricles.
• Runs through midbrain.
• Divides it into a dorsal tectum and paired ventral cerebral peduncles.

Structures found in the 4th ventricle.

Axon terminal releases specific neurotransmitter chemical that acts on the plasma membrane, either to excite or inhibit electrical activity in the recipient cell.

Membrane attached to the roots of the four ventricles that secretes CSF.

Fiber tracts that connect corresponding parts of the right and left halves of the CNS.

Several pathways, possibly carrying different types of info, may make synapses on the same neurons.

Major commissure

Bulk of gray matter in the brain.

Stimulation of the dendrites results in local depolarizaton that decreases in intensity as it travels through the dendrites to the cell body.

• Division of the prosencephalon.
• Contains the thalamus and hypothalamus.

• Pyramidal tracts.
• Carry axons in the motor cortex that traverse the cord without synapsing until they reach neurons in the spinal segments.

• In the posterior funiculus.
• Occupies wedge-shaped sector of the medial posterior cord.
• Carrie info about fine touch and pressure sensations.

Contains cell bodies of somatic sensory afferents.

Encloses each axon.

Class of glial cells in the CNS.

Sheath that encloses the entire peripheral nerve.

• Postsynaptic potentials.
• Increase likelihood that postsynaptic cell will initiate action potential at the axon hillock.

• Originate in brain stem nuclei.
• Receive input from basal nuclei and cerebellum.
• Control muscles of the axial skeleton.
• Mediate less finely controlled movements of the trunk.

• The hindbrain.
• Connected to the 3rd ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct.

• Membrane protein.
• Short for GTP-binding protein.
• Consists of 3 subunits designated alpha, beta, and gamma.

• Large parts of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
• Critical for integrating multiple modes of sensory info into a comprehensive understanding of a situation.

• Touch, temp, pain.
• Muscle, tendon, and joint receptors that give info about position and movement of the body in space.

Supporting cells of the nervous system.

• Cranial mixed nerve.
• Serves part of the tongue and throat.
• Carries gustatory afferents from posterior tongue and afferents from carotid body and carotid sinus.

• Medial spinal nerve branch.
• Connects base of each ventral ramus to corresponding sympathetic chain ganglion.
• Part of sympathetic branch of the autonomic motor system.

Converts guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP).

Ridges that are created by folding of the cortex as it grows.

Map of the cortex representing the body surface.

Postsynaptic potentials that tend to decrease the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will initiate an action potential at the axon hillock.

• Cranial nerve.
• Innervates muscles of the tongue.

One of four major unpaired prevertebral ganglia located in the abdomen and pelvis.

One of four major unpaired prevertebral ganglia located in the abdomen and pelvis.

• Association neurons.
• Most numerous neurons.
• Processes are entirely within the CNS.
• Process info for appropriate response.

Regular intervals in which myelinated axons are surrounded by multilayered sheaths formed by glia.

• Neurotransmitter receptor.
• Ion channel.
• Binds transmitter to ionotropic receptor.
• Opens channel, resulting in permeability change.

Contains spinothalamic pathway.

Paired, C-shaped ventricles within the cerebral hemisphere.

Separates cerebrum into right and left hemispheres.

• Coupledto intracellular second messengers by way of G proteins.
• May be coupled to different second messenger systems in different cell types.

Cerebellum and pons portion of brain stem.

• Cells of the nonspecific immune system.
• Not true glia cells.
• Form that macrophages take in the brain.

• Enzyme.
• Packages for reuse or breaks down any given molecule of recovered norepi.

• No interneurons in the reflex arc.
• All integration takes place at synapses of the sensory neurons on the motor neurons.
• May be evoked by tapping on a muscle or its tendon.

Medulla oblongata portion of the brain stem.

Sites in myelanted axon in which sheath is interrupted at regular intervals, leaving axonal membrane bare.

• Cranial nerve.
• Contains efferents that innervate four of the six extrinsic eye muscles and parasympathetic fibers that innervate the iris of the eye.

• Class of glial cells in the CNS.
• Lays down myelin sheaths that surround axons of some central neurons.

Part of the sympathetic pathway to the effectors.

Wrapping that separates fascicles from one another.

Interlacing networks formed by the ventral rami of all spinal nerves.

• Includes one or more interneuron.
• Results in a generalized flexion of an appendage in response to an aversive stimulus.

Primary somatosensory areas of the cortex.

• Within the spinocerebellar pathway.
• Carry info from muscle and joint receptors to the cerebelum.

• Second neuron of the autonomic pathways.
• In the peripheral ganglion.
• Preganglionic cell's axon synapses and then projects to an effetor in a visceral organ.

Recipient cell

• PSP
• Caused by binding of transmitter to its receptor.
• Initiates permeability change in postsynaptic cell.

Primary motor areas of the cortex.

• Lies rostral to the motor areas of the precentral gyrus.
• Activities that involve reasoning, complex learning abilities, long-term planning, judgment.
• Mood, emotions, social behavior.

• First neuron of the autonomic pathway.
• Cell body is in the CNS.
• Axon projects to peripheral autonomic ganglion.

Point at which preganglionic axon synapses on postganglionic neuron that project to effector in abdmoninal cavity.

Carry axons of neurons in the motor cortex that traverse the cord without synapsing until they reach neurons in the spinal segments.

• Medial gray ramus and lateral white ramus connect the base of each ventral ramus to corresponding sympathetic chain ganglion.
• Part of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic motor system.

• Organization of neurons and effectors.
• Simplest way of organizing nervous system to achieve appropriate response.

• In the PNS.
• Glial cells.
• Myelinates CNS neurons.

• Region of the PNS.
• Consists of skeletal muscles and body surface.

Map-like organization of the brain.

Carries info from muscle and joint receptors to the cerebellum.

• Located in anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts.
• Carries info about coarse touch, temp, pain sensations to primary somatosensory cortex.

Nerve that preganglionic axon follows after passing through chain ganglion without synapsing.

Shallow grooves created by folding of the cortex as it grows.

Paired series lying parallel to the spinal column on each side and connected to the vertebral rami of T1-L1 by rami communicantes.

Roof of the cerebral aqueduct.

• In the forebrain.
• Cerebral cortex and basal nuclei.

Relay info from somatosensory, visual, auditory, olfactory, and gustatory sensory systems to primary processing areas in the cortex.

Separates cerebral hemisphere from the cerebellum.

• Cranial nerve.
• Contains afferents from the face.
• Innervates masticatory muscles.

• Collection of sensory info.
• Form unified picture and organize appropriate response.
• Motor output to produce response.

the brain and spinal cord

spinal and cranial nerves

• Sensory
• Motor

• Skeletal muscles
• Body surface

Soft internal organs of digestive system, lungs, heart, and blood vessels.

• Sensory or afferent neurons.
• Motor or efferent neurons.
• Interneurons or association neurons.

• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Ependymal cells
• Microglia

line the fluid filled central cavity of the brain and spinal cord.

speical sensory systems.

pathways that carry info from the skin surface to the central nervous system.

commands from CNS to effectors.

increase the amount of norepi available for release, increasing efficacy of adrenergic synapses.

• Sensory receptor.
• Integrating center.
• Motor neuron.
• Effector.

• telencephalon
• diencephalon

• metencephalon
• myelencephalon

• cerebral cortex
• basal nuclei

• thalamus
• hypothalamus

midbrain portion of brain stem

• cerebellum
• pons portion of brainstem

medulla oblongata portion of brain stem.

at the first synapse one comes to outside the CNS.

acetylcholine.

norepinephrine.

• nicotinic
• muscarinic

on the postganglionic cells in both sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways.

effector organs served by parasympathetic system.

ionotropic receptors

an excitatory response.

a general family of metabotropic receptors.

norepinephrine

epinephrine

Bulb-like structure at th end of each semicircular canal.

• First type of nerveending of the stretch receptors.
• Wraps itself around the center of a nuclear bag muscle fiber.

• Maintain head position vertical with respect to gravity.
• Restore erect posture in response to a sudden tilt.
• Maintain fixed-eye gaze when the head moves unpredictably.

Antigravity reflex

Antigravity reflex

Antigravity reflex

• Scattered throughout the thoracic arteries.
• Contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood and secondarily sensitve to the acidity of the blood and the partial pressure of CO2.

• Fluid secreted by the ciliary body.
• Reabsorbed into venous sinuses of the sclera.

Bones that couple the tympanic membrane to the oval window.

Auditory ossicles

middle ear cavity with the pharynx.

• Detect the stretch of arteries at strategic sites in the vascular tree.
• Monitors arterial blood pressure.

baroreceptors

baroreceptors

Floor of the cochlear duct.

Basilar membrane

Structures vibrate preferetially at a frequency that is determined by their physical dimensions and material composition.

Provide a direct pathway from receptors to the ganglion cells.

Bipolar cells

• Located on the carotid sinus.
• Contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood and secondarily sensitive to the acidity of the blood and the partial pressure of CO2.

Monitor the chemical composition of body fluids.

chemoreceptors

• In the retina.
• Part of the photopigment that actually absorbs light energy.

chromophore

Ring of tissue that supports the lens.

Ciliary body

Taste bud projections on the tongue that form an inverted V near the back of the tongue.

Circumvallate papillae

Organ of sound transduction.

Cochlea

Same retinal cell will be contributing to the message relayed by a number of ganglion cells.

Convergence

Transparent structure that allows light to enter the eye.

Cornea

Neurons of the visual cortex that are arranged in six horizontal layers.

cortical microcolumn

Once the vestibuloauditory nerve enters the brain stem, the pathway branches to the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei and the superior olivary nucleus of the brain stem.

Images fall into focus without accomodation for objects that are about six meters away.

Emmetropia

Fluid of the scala media

Endolymph

External wall of the eyeball, taking the form of the sclera.

Fibrous tunic

Tiny spot in the center of the macula lutea that contains only cones.

Fovea

Small taste buds that are scattered over the entire tongue.

Fungiform papillae

Third-order cells whose axons project through the optic nerve to the thalamus.

Ganglion cells

• Located within the olfactory bulb.
• Neurons synapse on mitral cells that occur in clusters.

Make inhibitory connections on the corresponding spinal motor neurons so that when a tendon is dangerously strained the motor neurons serving the muscle will become less active.

Golgi tendon organs

• Hole at the apex of the cochlea.
• Connects the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani.

Helicotrema

As lung fills during inspiraton, feedback from chest wall and lung stretch receptors tends to terminate the inspiration.

Hering-Breuer

• Lens is too thin or eyeball too short.
• Images of near objects fall behind surface of the retina.
• Focus of distant objects will be correct.

Hypermetropia

Hypermetropia

• Located in the midbrain.
• Part of the auditory afferent pathway.

• Attaches to the ciliary body anterior to the lens.
• Creates an opening in the eye.

iris

the position and changes in position of synovial joints.

joint receptors

Knob-like auditory structure to which an apical tuft of sensory cilia is attached.

Form of Meissner's corpuscle adapted for fine touch.

Krause's end bulbs

Visual pathway must first pas through the thalamus where ganglion cell axons of the optic nerve synapse to reach the primry visual cortex in the occipital lobes.

• Focuses light rays enterig the eye typically onto the retina.
• Lies immediately behind the pupil.

Lens

• Circular region in the center of the posterior retina that contains mainly cones.
• Part of the retina used for examining the visual world for color and detail.

Macula lutea

Macula lutea

the tympanic membrane.

• Located in the thalamus.
• Serves the auditory afferent pathway.

• Occupies an air-filled cavity between the tympanic membrane and the round and oval windows.
• Contains the three auditory ossicles.

Middle ear

Middle ear

Axons project to the primary olfactory area of the cerebral cortex and the limbic system.

Stretch receptors that consist of a spindle-shaped capsule enclosing two types of modified muscle fibers together with two types of nerve endings.

Stretch receptors that consist of a spindle-shaed capsule enclosing two types of modifid muscle fibers together with two types of nerve endings.

• Part of the stretch receptor.
• Nerve ending that belongs to a nerve fiber designted as Type IA.

nuclear bag muscle fiber

• Part of the stretch receptors.
• Second type of nerve ending.
• Called a flower spray ending.
• Belong to afferents designated by their medium/large size as belonging to Type II.

nuclear chain muscle fiber

nuclear chain muscle fiber

Patch of cell bodies on the roof of the nasal cavity.

Olfactory mucosa

• In the retina.
• Part of the compex that confers wavelength selectivity.

Opsin

• X-shaped structure.
• Formed by optic nerve from the two eyes that converge to the midine of the underside of the brain.

optic chiasm

• Spot medial to the macula.
• Retinal axons must converge and pass through the photoreceptor layer.
• Forms the optic nerve.

optic disc

II (2)

optic nerve

Thalamic interneurons that project in a fanlike manner to the occipital cortex.

optic radiation

• In the ear.
• Gelatinous disk.
• Weighted with smal calcium carbonate crystals.

otolithic membrane

Conducts pressure waves to the scala vestibuli.

oval window

Fluid that fills the cochlea.

Perilymph

• Light energy that takes the form of individual packets.
• Has an energy level that is expressed as a wavelength.

Photons

Photon

• Rods and cones contained in the inner layer of the retina.
• Help to carry out the first stages of neural integration of visual information.

Photoreceptors

photoreceptors

Hollow interior of the eyeball filled with gelatinous vitreous humor.

posterior segment

Compressed and decompressed air that spread out from the source.

Pressure waves

• Responsible for monitoring the internal state of the body.
• Provides the basis for homeostatic responses.

proprioception

Opening that allows light that has penetrated the cornea to pass through the lens.

Pupil

Eye muscles that direct the gaze in the up-down and left-right axes.

rectus muscles

Used by the ear to determine the position of a sound source in space.

relative intensity

Structures vibrate preferentialy at a best resonant frequency that is determined by their physical dimensions and material composition.

• 1. Outer pigmented layer of epithelial cells.
• 2. Inner layer that contains photoreceptors and several levels of interneuros.

• Olfactory system.
• "Nosebrain".
• Olfactory pathway to central processing areas does not pass through the thalamus.

rhinencephalon

Chromophore for rods in the retina.

rhodopsin

Photoreceptor within the inner layer of the retina.

Allows the cochlea to vibrate freely.

Round window

• Hollow structure filled with endolymph.
• Monitors the position of the head with respect to the pull of gravity.

• saccule
• utricle

• Tough covering seen as the white of the eye.
• Continuous with the dura mater of the brain.

sclera

sclera

Part of the inner ear that is responsible for body equilibrium.

semicircular canal

Sensory fibers carrying taste information synapse in this area of the medulla.

solitary nucleus

• Nerves of the cochlea.
• Where all auditory afferents have their cel bodies.

spiral ganglion

spiral ganglion

• Continuous input, even if the head is not being moved.
• Given by the system that monitors the position of the head with respect to the pull of gravity.

static eqilibrium

Sensitive part of the hair celltat is an apical tuft of sensory cilia.

Stereocilia

• One eye fails to move in concert with the other eye when folloing a moving stimulus.
• "Wandering eye."
• "Cross-eye".

Strabismus

Monitors length in skeletal muscle.

stretch receptors

• In the brain stem.
• Receives inputs from both ears.
• Involved in sound localizaton.

superior olivary nucleus

• Flap of tissue that projects from the inner wall of the cochlear duct.
• Overlies the hair cells so that the stereocilia are in close contact with its underside.

tectorial membrane

tectorial membrane

Innervate the great mass of muscle fibers that is not part of stretch receptors.

Alpha motor neurons

Innervate the fibers within stretch receptors that command the stretch receptor fibers to shorten in parallel with the rest of the fibers.

Delta motor nuerons

Eardrum

• Rapidly adapting receptors.
• Give a vigorous burst of action potentials in response to stretch.
• Do not respond to steady states.

IA

IA

IA

• Slowly adapting receptors.
• Respond to sustained stretch with a well-sustained train of action potentials.

II

II

• Hollow structure filled with endolymph.
• Monitors the position of the head with respect to the pull of gravity.

• Within the external wall of the eyeball.
• Forms the ciliary body.

vascular tunic

Once vestibuloauditory nerve enters the brain stem, the pathway branches to the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei and the superior olivary nucleus of the brain stem.

Roof of the cochlear duct.

Vestibular membrane

Inputs from the vestibular system pass to these structures of the brain stem, detecting changes of head orientation.

vestibular nuclei

• Senses the body's equilibrium.
• Located in the ear.

Vestibular system

• Cranial nerve VIII.
• Auditory afferent pathway courses centrally through cochlear nerve, which joins the vestibular nerve to form the vestibuloauditory nerve.

Gelatinous substance that fills the posterior section of the hollow interior of the eyeball.

vitreous humor

Location of a small number of primary olfactory receptors that may be an evolutionary vestige.

vomeronasa organ

• temperature
• pain
• light touch

• Merkel discs
• Ruffini's corpuscles
• Meissner's corpuscles
• Pacinian corpuscles

sensations of steady pressure.

• Merkel discs
• Ruffini's corpuscles

vibration

• Meissner's corpuscles
• Pacinian corpuscles

• tympanic membrane
• oval window
• connects the two

oval window

round window

hollow part of the cochlea.

• scala media
• scala tympani

organ of Corti

basilar membrane

• several bands of auditory hair cells
• supporting cells

• scala media
• scala tympani

vestibular membrane

• After a meal.
• Period during which the body receives nutrients from food in the intestine.

Supply of adrenal steroids is inadequate; due to damage to the adrenals or failure of ACTH secretion.

• Anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
• Secretes six glycoprotein hormones.

Converts a small fraction of the cell's supple of ATP into cAMP.

• Branch of the sympathetic nervous system.
• Secretes catecholamines, epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Excess androgen that masculinizes the genitalia of female fetuses if the mother has the defect.

• Adrenal cortical steroid.
• Regulates Na+ content.
• With ADH, regulates extracellular fluid volume.

Plasma protein that splits off angiotensin I when renin acts on it.

• Adenohypophysis.
• Pars distalis.

• Vasopressin.
• ADH increases rate of recovery of water from collecting ducts in the kidney.
• Promotes water conservation and production of scanty, concentrated urine.

• ANF.
• Peptide hormone.
• Released by muscle fibers of the atria.
• Along with ADH and aldosterone, regulates kidney function.

• CCK.
• Inhibits gastric emptying.
• Stimulates gall bladder contractions to increase delivery of digestive enzymes to duodenum.

• Protein matrix.
• Acts as reservoir for iodine accumulated in the thyroid from the blood.

Excessive adrenal activity is generally the result of excessive secretion of ACTH.

• cAMP.
• Cyclic nucleotide that acts as a second messenger.

• Signaling substance that is a hydrophobic molecule.
• Diffuses freely within the plasma membrane.
• Acts on specific family of protein kinases (C kinases) distinct from that affected by cyclic nucleotides.

Gonadal hormone.

• Peptide hormones.
• Involved in process by which the body modulates its own pain sensitivity.

• Secreted by the adrenal medulla.
• Catecholamine that is an important hormone of the postabsorptive state.

• Mediator secreted by the stomach.
• Stimulates secretion of acid and pesin by the gastric mucosa.

• Secreted by the pancreas.
• Hormone.
• Important in the postabsorptive state.

• GIP.
• Hormone released in response to appearance of carb meal in the duodenum.
• Stimulates early release of insulin in advance of the appearance of the glucose in the blood.

• GNRF.
• Secreted by the hypothalamus.
• Controls secretion of LH and FSH.

Fraction of blood volume that is red blood cells.

• Special variety of blood circulation.
• Involves two sets of capillaries connected by one or more portal veins.

• Endocrine cells embedded in the exocrine tissue.
• Secrete three major protein hormones: glucagon, insuline, and somatostatin.

• Protein hormone.
• Released by adipose cells in proportion to their stored fat content.
• Acts on the CNS to suppress appetite.

• Family of hormones included in the POMC sequence.
• Important in animals that change color.
• No normal function in humans.

• Stimulates periodic waves of contraction in the postabsorptive gut.
• "Stomach growling"

• Disorder of body fluid distribution.
• Caused by excessive production of mucopolysaccharides in tissues.

• Extension of the hypothalamus.
• Contains axon terminals of neurosecretory hypothalamic neurons.

Neurons whose synapses release substances that pass into the blood and act as hormones.

Major transmitter chemical released by sympathetic postganglionic fibers.

Structure within the cell that interacts with mainly steroid hormones.

Releases the octapeptide hormone oxytocin.

• Enzyme.
• Converts cAMP to an inactive form.

• Membrane-bound enzyme.
• Splits small fraction of plasma membrane's phospholipid into two signaling substances: inositol trisphosphate (ITP or IP3) and diacylglycerol.

• Neurohypophysis.
• Pars nervosa

Snips prohormone's sequence at various points to yield the shorter sequences of the various hormones.

Protein sequence in which the primary transcript of the gene is translated and serves as a prohormone.

Released when the kidney experiences an inadequate supply of oxygen that stimulates the synthesis of the hormone erythropoietin.

• Enzyme.
• Secreted by the kidney.
• Protease that acts on angiotensin to split off angiotensin I.

• Relays hormone's effect to molecules and structures inside the cell.
• Amplifies the effect of one hormone binding event by acting on several intracellular targets.

• Hormone.
• Inhibits gastric acid secretion.
• Stimulates alkali secretion by exocrine pandcreas.

• Pocket in the sphenoid bone.
• Encloses the pituitary gland.

• Somatotropin release-inhibiting factor.
• Serves as a GI tract hormone.

Growth hormone.

• T4.
• Thyroid hormone.
• Has 4 (T4) atoms of iodine bound to the two benzene rings of each hormone molecule.

• Millions compose the thyroid gland.
• Each follicle consists of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a central space filled with colloid.

Hormones that control the function of other endocrine glands.

• Aromatic amino acid.
• Epi and norepi and T3 and T4 are derived from.

Antidiuretic hormone

• Tyrosine derivatives.
• Peptides and proteins.
• Steroids.
• Eicosanoids.

• Hormone binds to receptor's binding site on extracellular side.
• G protein associated with cytoplasmic side is activated.
• G protein activates adenyl cyclase.
• Adenyl cyclase converts ATP into cAMP.
• Kinases attach phospate groups to intracellular enzymes.
• Second message terminated as cAMP is converted to inactive form.

• Growth hormone (HGH; somatotropin)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; corticotropin)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH; thyrotropin)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)

• Mineralocorticoids.
• Glucocorticoids.
• Gonadocorticoids.

• Major form of which is aldosterone.
• Major effect on homeostatic mechanisms for Na+ and K+.

• Major form of which is cortisol.
• Major effects are on energy production during fastiong and function of the immune system.

Sex hormones.

• Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).
• Catecholamines (epi and norepi).

• 1. Decrease in Na+ concentration (hyponatremia): need to conserve more Na+.
• 2. Decrease in rate of blood flow to the kidney (hypovolemia): need to form additional ECF.

• 1. Bone (stimulates osteoclasts).
• 2. Kidney (increases recovery of Ca++).
• 3. Intestine (1,25 DOHCC is necessary for uptake of Ca++).

Body automatically possesses antibodies against those antigens that one's own blood cells do not possess.

WBC belonging to the specific immune system.

• Genetic disease.
• Synthesis of Hg may be impaired.

• Greenish yellow pigment.
• Results from conversion of g released in the course of destruction of RBC.

Generation of interstitial fluid from plasma.

Destruction of mature RBC causes a form of hemolytic anemia marked by the appearance of immature, nucleated RBCs in the newborn's blood.

• Hormone.
• Responsive to oxygenationstate of tissues that influence formation of RBC.

• In hemostasis.
• Initiated by chemical factors released by damaged cells.
• Involves activation of Factor VII leading to activation of Factor X and association of Factor X and Factor V to form a prothrombin activator complex.

• Fraction of globulins that consists specifically of antibodies.
• Major type of recognition protein of the immune system.

Plasma proteins

WBC that are agents of the nonspecific immune system.

Fraction of blood volume occupied by RBC.

Stem cell for all blood cell types.

Rate of destruction of RBC may be increased.

Prevents or minimizes blood loss by plugging injured vessels until healing can occur.

• Excess of bilirubin.
• Gives skin and sclera yellow tinge.

• Initiated by trauma to the blood itself or by exposure to abnormal surface, such as glass or collagen.
• Leads to cascade of factors that terminate in the formation of the prothrombin activator complex.

• Cells of the specific immune system.
• Identify and direct attack against foreign substances, microbial invaders, other nonself materials.

• Large nucleated cell.
• Involved in the genesis of platelets.

• Agranular lymphocytes.
• Leave circulation and enter tissues where they transform into macrophages.

• Reaction to a transfusion of blood.
• Occurs between genetically different individuals.

Second form of blood type.

• Results from the removal of proteins involved in clotting.
• More stable form of plasma.
• Used medicinally as a source of gamma globulins.

• Plasma protein.
• Converts fibrinogen into fibrin.

Chemical factors released by damaged cells that initiate the extrinsic pathway.

Ration between the weight of the liquid and that of an equal volume of pure water.

Measure of the fluid's resistance to flow.

• Cardiovascular reflexes.
• Regulate arterial blood pressure.

• Nodal fibers near the junction of atrial and ventricular septa.
• Spontaneously active.
• Gives the heart automaticity.

• Second reflex pathway.
• Originates from the vascular system.
• Keeps pressure low.
• Prevents pooling of blood on the venous side of the circulation.

Decrease in arterial BP triggers reflexive increase in heart rate/force through simultaneous decrease in parasympathetic tone and increase in sympathetic outflow to the heart and to the resistance vessels of the vascular system.

Excitation enters AV node then spreads into bundle of fibers which divides into one branch that passes down interventricular septum and into right ventricle, and two branches enter the left ventricle.

Collects blood from the heart's own cardiac veins.

EKG recorded from corners of the triangle by the right arm, left arm, and left leg.

Heart automatically adjusts stroke volume so that increases in end-diastolic volume are matched by increases in stroke volume.

Contractility or force-generating potential of the heart modulated by autonomic inputs.

Heart cycle during which the ventricle is contracting as a closed container.

Heart cycle after ejection in which bicuspid valvecloses and ventricle contains end-systolic volume of blood.

Serves both ventricles, left atrium, and interventricular septum.

Carries blood to the lungs.

With onset of exercise or excitement, first response of the center of the brain stem is removal of parasympathetic tone, allowing SA node to drive heart at its spontaneous rate.

Conducting fibers of the ventricular mass.

Serves the right atrium, right ventricle, and variable portions of the left atrium and left ventricle.

Carries blood to the lungs.

Blood that is ejected from the ventricle into the artery, rapidly raising arterial pressure from diastolic to systolic.

• Net resistance to blood flow.
• Whole-body value tha is affected by dilation or constriction of blood vessels.

Abnormal increases in the mass of the heart muscle in response to chronic overload.

• Pericardium: double membrane; encloses heart.
• Fibrous pericardium: outer layer;
• Serous pericardium: inner layer, continuous with epicardium.
• Epicardium: outermost layer
• Myocardium: middle layer (thickest)
• Endocardium: innermost layer (sheet of endothelium)

• Superior vena cava
• Inferior vena cava
• Coronary sinus

tricuspid (right atrioventricular valve).

pulmonary semilunar valve.

pulmonary trunk.

• right pulmonary artery
• left pulmonary artery
• carry blood to the lungs

• blood returning to the hear from the lungs
• pulmonary veins

mitral or bicuspid (left atrioventricular) valve.

• Heart fills under low pressure.
• Heart ejects blood against high pressure.

• Walls of large arteries store energy as they are stretched during ejection.
• Release it during rest of the cardiac cycle.

• 1. SA nodal fibers reach threshold, generate action potential.
• 2. Excitation spreads, atrial systole begins.
• 3. Wave of excitation passing through atrial fibers approaches AV node.
• 4. Excitation enters AV node, spreads into bundle of His, ventricular systole is initiated. Wave of repolarization in the atria.
• 5. Ventricular repolarizaton occurs. Diastolic phase begins new cycle.

• Branches from the renal arteries within the cortex of the kidney.
• Serves a single functional excretory unit, a nephron.

Stimulate increased levels of activity in the other cell types of their clone.

Rejoining of the capillaries of each capillary bed.

Produce antibodies.

• Receptors are in the walls of the right atrium and venae cavae.
• Monitor venous return.

Initial segment of the nephron.

Continuous circulation of fluid across the capillary wall.

Neutrophils and monocytes are attracted to an inflamed area.

• Joins the carotid and vertebral pathways.
• Allows either pathway to perfuse the entire brain if the other path is blocked.

Supplies the left atrium and the posterior part of the left ventricle.

• Incorporates about a dozen proteins.
• When activated by antibody binding, can punch holes in the cells of microbes and parasites.
• Stimulates the attack of phagocytes.
• Attract phagocytes to the scene.

• CD8 cells.
• Attack invaders directly.
• Recognizes them through T cell receptors carried on the cell surface.
• Secretes toxic substances that destroys the invading cells by perforating their plasma membrane.

Leukocytes first stick to the walls of blood vessels in the area and then squeeze through intercellular junctions to enter the affected tissue.

Carry blood to specific body regions.

Connects the fetal aortic arch and pulmonary trunk.

Allows much of the umbilical venous blood to bypass the liver and enter the fetal vena cava.

• Structures through which most of the venous drainage of the brain enters.
• Lies between the two layers of cranial dura mater surrounding the cerebrum.

• Formed by the rejoining of the glomerular capillaries.
• Serves a second peritubular capillary bed surrounding the cortical parts of the tubule.

Carry the filtered lymph onward toward the thoracic duct.

Trunk of the arterial tree that include the aorta and its thoracic branches, the common iliac arteries of the thighs, and the pulmonary trunk that passes from right ventricle to the lungs.

Controls arteriolar diameter by input from the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.

Formed by the light chains and heavy chains within the structure of an antibody.

Stem of the antibody Y structure that is part of the heavy chain.

Controls arteriolar diameter by chemical substances released by the cells in the immediate vicinity of the arteriole.

• Collects venous blood from the abdominal and pelvic digestive organs.
• Delivers this blood by way of the hepatic portal vein.

• Forms backbone joined by multiple disulfide bonds at the fork of the Y structure of the antibody.
• Both heavy chains lie parallel in the stem of the Y.
• Each one forms one of the branches.

• CD4 cells.
• Interact with B cell clones that can react to the same antigen.
• Promotes secretion of antibodies.

Line along which veins exit the spleen.

Forces that affect fluid movement between plasma and interstitial fluid.

Dilation of bloodvessels resulting in an increase in blood flow.

Carries blood that has perfused the hypothalamus of the brain to a second capillary bed in the anterior hypophysis of the pituitary.

Connects the hypothalamus to the adenohypophysis of the pituitary.

Chemical mediators of inflammation.

• Cell surface proteins.
• Interact between macrophages and T cells.

Branches from the right coronary artery descending vertically, serving the right ventricle.

• Volume flow rate to the venous return (VR).
• Flow resistance to the total peripheral resistance (TPR).
• VR = MAP/TPR.

Proteins, when activated by antibody binding, stimulate the attack of phagocytes.

Surrounds the cortical parts of the tubule in the kidney.

Clusters of lymphatic follicles in the wall of the distal small intestine.

Osmotic gradient between plasma and interstitial fluid that results from the fact that proteins do not freely enter the interstitial fluid from the plasma.

Secreted by the hypothalamus into the hypothalamic-anterior hypophyseal portal blood to control the secretion of anterior hypophyseal hormones.

• In the vascular system.
• Arterioles.

• Blood in thoracic veins cannot flow backward because of the valves.
• Must flow forward into the right atrium.

• Laid down by fibroblasts.
• Provides the scaffolding that the basic structure of lymphoid tissues is based on.

Viruses cause their RNA sequences to be converted to DNA.

Allow much of the output of the fetal right heart to bypass the pulmonary loop of the collapsed fetal lungs and enter the systemic circulation (right-to-left shunts).

Specialized liver capillaries.

Path through which lymph drainage from most of the body, excluding the superior right quadrant, reenters the blood circulation.

• Hormone.
• Stimulates immunocompetence in the T lymphocytes.

Caused by the constriction of the arterioles.

• Outermost layer of arteries and veins.
• Consists mainly of connective tissue.

• Innermost layer of arteries and veins.
• Consists of endothelial cells resting on a basement membrane of connective tissue.

• Layer in arteries and veins between the tunica externa and tunica interna.
• Consists mainly of vascular smooth muscle.

Parallel loops formed by the medullary capillaries in the kidney.

Arteries and veins that oxygenate and nourish the tissues of the largest blood vessels.

cause both arteriolar and venous smooth muscle to contract.

cause vasodilation.

beta (vasodilation)

alpha (vasoconstriction)

• heart rate
• contraction

• First class of antibodies to appear in the blood in response to an active infection.
• Consists of a pentamer containing five of the Y-shaped monomers.

• Found in the blood.
• Cross capillary walls.
• Enter interstitial fluid.
• Cross placenta.

Found as a dimer (2 Y subunits) in tears, saliva, and breast milk.

• Found on surfaces of neutrophils and mast cells.
• Trigger histamine release.
• Involved in allergic reactions.

• Attached to surfaces of B lymphocytes.
• Indicator of the clonal identity of each lymphocyte.

Area only the airway in which some of the air moved through the respiratory system ventilates, thus not mediating gas exchange.

• Genetic disease.
• Most common in people of Mediterranean ancestry.
• Result of a mutation that impairs synthesis of beta chains.

Decrease in pH which results from production of acidic endproducts.

Volume of a gas is inversely proportionl to the pressure at constant temperature.

If volume is held constant, pressure is proportional to temperature.

Total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressure of the gases that make up the mixture.

Immediate effect unrelated to training, arising instead from the greater surface area of the more expanded lungs and from an improvement in the ventilation/perfusion ratio with greater blood flow to the lungs.

Changes in lung volume measured during a forced expiration.

• ERV.
• Value that represents additional air that could be exhaled with an effort.

Work done to move air against the airway resistance.

• FVC.
• Measurable value for a forced expiration.

• FRC.
• Value that measures the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume.

Conversion of some of the lactic acid to glucose by the liver.

Concentration of a gas in water solution is determined by the partial pressure of the gas multiplied by its temperature-dependent solubility constant.

Condition in which there is a lack of enough surfactant to properly inflate their lungs.

• IC.
• Actual tidal olume plus the inspiratory reserve volume.

• IRV.
• Maximal inspiration possible.

Pressure P inside a bubble (or any elastic sphere) is a function of the wall tension T and the radius r:P=2T/r.

Total volume of air moved through the respiratory system in one minute.

• Overventilated alveoli.
• Prevented by ventilation-perfusion matching.

Underventilated alveoli, if ventilation-perfusion matching did not occur.

Results from sensory or nervous conditions that cause hyperventilation (anxiety, cold exposure, certain nervous stimulant drugs) or from rapid travel to high altitude.

Air capacities measured in the absence o airflow.

• 2,3 DPG.
• Chemical mediator.
• Producedby RBC as they pass through tissues that are not receiving adequate oxygen.

• TV.
• 500 ml of air from atmosphere driven through the airway to the alveola sacs.

• Nasal cavity.
• Larynx.
• Trachea.
• Primary bronchi.
• Terminal bronchioles.

• ERV.
• Represents additional air that could be exhaled with effort.

• RV.
• Represents the remaining gas that could not be expelled.

• functional residual capacity.
• FRC

• inspiratory reserve volume.
• IRV.
• 3000 ml

• inspiratory capacity.
• IC.
• 3500 ml

largest volume that can be ventilated in one breath.

filling the lung is more difficult than in a healthy person, whereas emptying is easier.

flow resistance of the airway is increased.

partial pressure differences, rather than concentration differences.

• FVC and FRC decrease.
• Ratio FEV1.0:FVC increases.

• Dead space ventilation becomes large in relation to alveolar ventilation.
• Flow resistive work becomes large because of the rapid movement of air back and forth.

Force needed to expand lung/chest wall system to volumes approaching their physical limit is disproportionately great, making the elastic work component very large.

PO2 and PCO2 of air in local alveoli.

• perfusion is overmatching ventilation.
• Brochioles dilat.
• Arterioles constrict.

• 1. Decrease in pH. Bohr effect.
• 2. Increase in temp.
• 3. Presence of 2,3 diphosphoglycerate.

• 1. Central chemoreceptors located in the medulla; sensitive to H+.
• 2. Peripheral chemoreceptors located i the carotid and aortic bodies; sensitive to PO2.
• 3. Stretch receptors in the lung and chest wall
• 4. Hypothalamic centers.

fixed acids.

ingestion of some alkali or loss of natural acid.

any condition that impairs ventilation.

sensory or nervous conditions that cause hyperventilation or from rapid travel to high altitude.

increasing ventilation.

an increase in H+ secretion in the renal tubules.

a switch from acid secretion to alkali secretion in the distal tubule of the renal nephron.

Small clusters of cells surrounding a hollow cavity.

Funnel-shaped region that leads into the pylorus.

• Peptide hormone.
• AKA: human gastrin-releasing peptide

• Enzyme.
• Activated by insulin.
• Converts plasma lipid into 3 fatty acids and glycerol.

Spaces between the villi in the small intestine.

Branch from the common hepatic duct that leads to the gall bladder.

Removal of the amino acid group from a compound.

Add bicarbonate to a primary secretion of the acinar cells.

• Endocrine cells.
• Secrete histamine.

Separates the lie into right and left lobes.

Series of pouch-like vaginations in the wall of the colon.

• Secreted by the stomach.
• Protects against self-digestio.

• Restores fluid homeostasis.
• Salty solution.
• Effectiveness of solution enhanced by inclusion of glucose and/or amino acids.

• Secreted by D cells.
• Inhibitor of gastric secretion.

Three prominent bands of longitudinal muscle of the large intestine.

• Attack specific peptid bonds.
• Converts proteins to peptide fragments.
• Activate inactive precursors of all pancreatic enzymes.

intraperitoneal organs

• Stomach
• Liver

• Lost their connection with the mesentery during development.
• Lie behind the posterior wall of parietal peritoneum.

Pancreas

• Fundus.
• Body.
• Antrum.
• Pylorus.

• 1. Parasympathetic input from postganglionic cells that corelease acetylcholine and bombesin.
• 2. Secretagogues: derived from food.

• 1. Sympathetic input (norepi).
• 2. Feedback inhibition from the duodenum.
• 3. Stomach protects self by releasing prostaglandins (signal of tissue damage).

• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum

• Cecum
• Colon
• Rectum

• Lies in the RLQ.
• V. appendix projects from inferior aspect.

• 1. Ascending
• 2. Transverse
• 3. Descending
• 4. Sigmoid - leads to the rectum

Carbons removed from backbone. Yields reducing power, which is captured in the form of reduced coenzyme. GDP is phosphorylated directly. 2 ATP & 2 NADH from glycolytic pathway, + 10 molecules of reduced coenzyme from pyruvate metabolism. Reduced coenzymes enter terminal oxidative metabolism.

Aliphatic carbon chain of fatty acid clipped into 2-carbon chunks & energy released is captured as reduced coenzyme (FADH2 & NADH).

• 1. Coenzyme A mole attached to carboxyl group of fatty acid, yielding fatty acytl-CoA.
• 2. Double bond formed between 2nd & 3rd carbons in chain.
• 3. Water mole reacted with double-bonded carbons: 3rd carbon acquires hydroxyl group.
• 4. Hydroxyl group converted to double bond to oxyen, splitting bond between 2nd & 3rd carbons, releasing free mole of acetyl-CoA.

• Molecular scraps created from beta oxidation.
• Caused when fat breakdown occurs at a high rate, as with a starving individual.

keto acid

• Insulin dependent.
• When glycogen stores of liver are filled, liver converts remaining glucose to fat.

• Uptake stimulated by insulin.
• Carried out by Na+-coupled cotransporter.
• Excess undergoes deamination in the liver.
• Transferred to glutamate, converted to glutamine, resulting in keto acid: converted to fatty acid for lipogenesis.

• Adipose removes chylomicrons and deposit triacylglycerols as depot fat.
• 1st step carried out by capillary lipase: activated by insulin.

decrease in levels of insulin.

• Epinephrine.
• Glucagon.
• Cortisol.

• Glycogen in liver and muscle.
• Lipid in adipose tissue.
• Muscle protein.

• By the liver.
• Leads glucose release.
• Stimulated by epinephrine and glucagon.
• Glucose released into the blood.
• Liver's store sufficient 1-3 hrs normal activity.

• By muscle.
• Supplies lactic acid for gluconeogenesis by the liver.
• Does not lead to glucose exported into the blood.
• Glucose metabolized to lactic acid.

• Releases fatty acis and glycerol into blood.
• Key enzyme: hormone-sensitive lipase.
• Activated by epi and glucagon.
• Breaks down depot fat as free fatty acid and glycerol.

• Important during prolonged fasting.
• Amino acid released are deaminated, resulting ketoacids used for gluconeogenesis by the liver.

Protects glucose for the CNS.

• Diuretics.
• Block angiotensin-converting enzyme.

• Competitively inhibit the action of aldosterone on its tubular receptor.
• Decreases distal tubular Na+ recovery.
• Blocks conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II (ACE inhibitors).
• Decreases aldosterone secretion.

In the presence of adequate levels of ADH, collecting duct cells have numrous water channels in their plasma membranes that make the collecting duct wate but not salt permeable.

• ANF.
• Peptide hormone.
• Released by the heart.
• Controls glomerular filtration rate.

• Constricts arterioles throughout the systemic loop.
• Controls glomerular fitration rate.

Neurons closely connected to hypothalamic ADH-secreting cells that affect the rate of ADH secretion.

• Baroreceptor reflex.
• Atrial natriuretic factor.