biology 111

an educated guess based on available information

the opposite of the hypothesis

a hypothesis with a large body of evidence to support it

a well-tested theory that has become an immutable fact

to determine if the null hypothesis can be refuted

a condition that exists in more than one possible state, e.g. temperature,pH, exposure to sunlight etc.

variables that must be held constant in an experiment

variables that are allowed to fluctuate, the independent variable is the subject of the experiment only one thing.

a portion of the experiment that does not receive a treatment, this shows a baseline for comparison with the portion of the group that receives the treatment

a sugar pill used in drug treals, an individual in the trial will be unaware if they are receiving the treatment or a placebo to eliminate psychosomatic vareables

some test subjects will respond to a placebo because they are told it is an actual treatment

the experimenter(s) do not know whether an individual subject is getting the treatment ora placebo unti9l the study is complete, this eliminates experimenter bieas as a variable.

• 1.cellular
• 2.Dna based
• 3. Reproduction
• 4. Growth
• 5. Metabolism=use of energy
• 6.Homeostasis=maintaining a steady state
• 7. Evolution=adapt to environment
• 8. Carbom/water based=organic molecules

the number of protons

the number of protoms and neutrons

atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

one atom takes an electron from another atom to create an elctrical attraction

two atoms share electrons to create a bond

water molecules "stick" to each other

water molecules form hydrogen bonds with other molecules

chemicals that cause the pH of water to decrease

chemicals that cause the pH of water to increase

solutions that have chemicals in them that resist changes in pH

C H N O P & S

Carbohydrates, proteins, Nucleic acids,Lipids

single sugar molecule

two linked sugar molecules

a small chain (3-100) of sugar molecules

a long chain of sugar molecules, e.g. starch,glycogen,cellulose

energy storage, structural, in plant and bacteria cell walls

two linked amino acids

a chain of amino acids

the sequence of amino acids

localized structure comsisting elements such as the alpha- helix and beta-pleated sheet

the three dimensional structure of a single polypeptide

the total proteirn shape that inludes multiple polypeptides

the capacity o do work

energy of position

energy of motion

energy can neither be created nor destoryed it can only change forms

anytime energy changes form some energy is lost as heat

the sum total of all chmial reaction in a cell or organism

the reaction requires an input of energy

the reaction releases energy

some chemical reations move in both the forward and reverse directions

this is the part of the encyme where the chemical reaction occurs.

are proteins that have large complicated structuresEncymes grab the reactants and position them so that they will react to form products. After the product are formed the enzyme releases them the suffix- ase

reactants in the enzyme ataized reaction

• energy that must be added to a reation to get it started this applies to exergonic reactions as well as endergonic
• enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of a reaction, this makes the reaction go faster however it does not effect the equilibrium

non-protein chmicas found in the active site that faciitate function

the end product of a series of reactions inhibits the first enzyme in the series

the end product of a series of reactions activates an enzyme in the series

Phases a cell undergoes cell division and replication of DNA

The first growth phase is when the cell carries on anabolism to prepare the cell for synthesis and subsequesnt division.

if a cell does not need to divide it stops early in the G1 phase to enter G0 where it will not divide.

the synthesis phase is when the cell replicates in DNA

during the second growth phases the cell prepares for division by condensing the DNA and assembling the proteirns need for diviosn.

the separating of the two identical copies of DNA

the physical separation of a single parent cell into two daughter cells.

In order for the cell to divide it must duplicate in DNA in a process called replication,it is important to know that double stranded DNAe is anti-parallel

Denzymes carry our replication of DNA in a specific sequences.

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3.Anaphase

4.Telopase

opens up the double helix by breaking the hydogen bonds

bind to the single stranded DNA to prevent it from reforming the double helix

adds a short sequence of RNA to begin the duplication process

synthesis the DNA polymer from free nucleotides, the nucleotides that are added must pair with the existing strand according to chargraff's rule. DNA can only wrk in 3 to 5 direction

seals breaks in the sugar phoshate back bone

The strand of DNA that is synthezied continually

the other strand which is synthesized in fragments called Okazaki

1. DNA condenses in prep of cell division

DNA wrapped around proteins called histones.

is the genetic term for all of the cells DNA and associated proteins.

before cell division each of the individual segments of DNA condenses into these.

After DNA duplicates there are now two identical segments chomatids "sister".

The identical chromatids are attached to each other by a DNA protein complex.

Chromosomes condense

a specialized cytoskeleton structure that separates the chromatids begins to form(during prohase.

the membrane around the nucleus breaks down.

the miotic spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes at proteins on the centromeres called kinetochores.

the miotic spindle pulls apart the chromatids, this breaks the centromeres

the chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell .

The nuclear membrane reforms

the chromosomes decondense

the miotic spindle breaks down

Cytokinesis the physical separation of the parent cell into two daughter cells This occurs because the cell membrane contracts at the equator until the two new cells are formed.