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Cell Theory
1. All living thingsare composed of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells arise from the division of other cells.
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Simple Microscope
Uses lights & a single lens.
- Advantages: Clear Image - less blurry
- Disadvantage: Limited magnification
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Compound Microscope
Uses light & multiple lenses.
- Advantages: Higher magnification
- Disadvantages: More blurring/distortion of the image.
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Transmission Electron Microscope
Uses a beam of electrons that passes through a thin sample of a speciman.
- Magnification up to 7000 times
- Resolution up to 0.2nm
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Scanning Electron Microscope
Reflects a beam of electrons off the surface of a thick sample or even whole piece of an animal. Uses magnets to focus the beam at a fine point. Produces 3D images.
- Magnifies up to 300,000 times
- Resoultion up to 10nm
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Parts of a Plant Cell
- Cell Membrane
- Cell Wall
- Vacuole
- Chloroplast
- Golgi Complex
- Ribosomes
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Mitochondria
- Nucleus
- Nucleal Envelope
- Nuclear Pore
- Cytoplasm
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Parts of an Animal Cell
- Cell Membrane
- Nucleus
- Nuclear Envelope
- Nuclear Pore
- Nucleolous
- Cytoplasm
- Mitochondria
- Golgi Complex
- Vacuole
- Lysosomes
- Ribsomes
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Ribosomes
Produces proteins - enzymes
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Golgi Complex
Changes proteins & fats & packages them into vesicles
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Cytolplasm
Jelly-like substance within the cell where organelles are suspended
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Nucleus
Control center - DNA/RNA (genetic material)
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Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes
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Nuclear Membrane/Envelope
Porous, but selective - surrounds nucleous.
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Cell Membrane
Separates cell contents
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Mitochondria
Turns food into ATP (energy for the cell)
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Produces proteins (has ribosomes attached)
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Smooth Endplasmic Reticulum
Produces fat (no ribosomes attached)
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Vacuole
Fluid-filled sacs in the cell that apply turgor pressure to the cell wall, causing it to be strong & rigid
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Cell Wall
Strong/Rigid - surrounds entire cell
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Chloroplast
Turns sugars into ATP - green in colour
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Lysosomes
- Contain proteins
- Suicide organelle - destroys cell when attacked by viruses/bacteria
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Magnification
The ability of a lens to englarge the image of a sample
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Resolution
Refers to the amount of detail when viewing the image of a sample - the sharpness or blurriness
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Characteristics of Living Things
Obtain & use energy to power activities such as movement & growth.
Maintain a constant internal environment.
Reproduce
Made of cells
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Define: Element
Pure substances made up of a single type of atom.
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Define: Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus.
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Define: Atom
Tiny particles, the smallest unit in chemistry, that contain protons, neutrons, and electrons.
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Define: Compound
Molecules that contain atoms of different elements.
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Define: Ionic Bond
The attraction between positive and negative ions in an ionic compound.
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Define: Ion
An atom that is electrically charged by gaining or losing electrons.
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Covelant Bond
A bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.
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Hydrogen Bond
Attraction between highly polar molecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms.
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Acids
- Taste: Sour
- Feel: Not Slippery
- Litmus Test: Changed paper
- pH: Under 7
- Examples: Hydrochloric Acid // Sulfuric Acid
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Bases
- Taste: Bitter
- Feel: Slippery
- Litmus Test: Changed paper
- pH: Above 7
- Examples: Sodium Hydroxide // Ammonia
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Buffers
Buffer: a solution containing chemicals that can neutralize small amounts of acids and bases.
Carbonic Acid Buffer: contains equal concentrations of carbonic acid molecules and bicarbonate ions.
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How does carbonic acid buffer work in human blood?
How: Carbonic acid will neutralize small amounts of base that may enter the blood stream and bicarbonate ion will neutralize small amounts of acid that enter the blood stream.
Why: When your digestive system absorbs acids from fruits and other foods into the blood stream, the pH level of your blood lowers to more acidic level. This can be dangerous, so the buffers compensate for this.
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Solute
A dissolvable substance.
ie: sugar
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Solvent
A dissolving substance
ie: water
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Functional Groups
- Hydroxy: Polar hydrogen bonds
- Carboxyl: Polar acidic hydrogen bond
- Amino: Polar
- Sulfhydrate: Polar (what you smell when you burn your hair)
- Phosphate: Polar
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Macromolecules (large molecules)
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
- What: Molecules containing hydrogen and oxygen.
- Uses:
Source of energy.
How: Produced by plants and cyanobateria through photosynthesis.
Examples: Simple sugars (glucose, galactose, ribose, & fructose
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Lipids
What: Organic compounds containing non polar covelant carbon/hydrogen bonds. (fat soluble/hydrophobic) Three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule.
- Examples:Waxes, Phospholipids
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Nucleic Acids
What: DNA/RNA - store genetic information about the structures of proteins.
Example: Nucleotides
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Proteins
What: Unbranched polymers of amino acids.
Examples: Amino Acids // Enzymes
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Define: Enzymes
A protein that speeds up chemical reactions
- Main Functions:- act as a catalyst (speeds up chemical reactions)
- - control all chemical reactions in the cell
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Define: Ativation Energy
Energy required for chemical reactions to occur.
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Define: Competitive Inhibitor
Similar to the true substrate, and actually fit into part of the active site.
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Define: Non-Competitive Inhibitor
Chemically different from the substrate, and attach to another part of the enzyme.
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Affects of temperature & pH on enzymes
Temperature: if the temperature rises above 10 C, the rate of the enzyme controlled reaction will double. (Only if the temperature remains below 50 C). Enzymes denature above 50 C.
pH: Most enzymes in the body work best at a pH of 7 (neutral). Pepsin works best in an acidic environment, such as the stomach. It wouldn't be beneficial in an environment with a neutral pH.
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Define: Passive Transport
The spontaneous diffusion of a substance across a membrane without the help of cellular energy.
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Define: Diffusion
The tendency of molecules to spread into any available space.
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Define: Facilitated Diffusion
A type of passive transport that allows substances to cross the membrane with the assistance of special transport proteins.
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Define: Osmosis
A type of passive transport in which water diffuses from hypotonic solution (low solute concentration) to hypertonic solution (high solute concentration).
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Define: Hypertonic
A solution that has a higher solute concentration than some other solutions.
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Define: Hypotonic
A solution that has a lower solute concentration than some other solutions.
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Define: Isotonic
A solution with equal solute concentration.
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Define: Bulk Transport
The movement of large quantitites of materials into or out of a cell.
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Materials that pass through the cell membrane using simple diffusion
Water
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Materials that pass through the cell membrane using active transport
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Explain the difference between active transport and passive transport
Active Transport describes what happens when a cell uses energy to transport something.
Passive Transport describes what happenes when a cell transports something without the use of energy.
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Two forms of Bulk Transport
- Endocytosis (Phagocytosis & Pinocytosis)
- Cell eating/Drinking - large amounts of food are engulfed by the cell membrane and absorbed by the cell.
- Exocytosis
- Large amounts of particles are excreted from the cell
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Define: Photosynthesis
- Carbon Dioxide // Water // Light -hits chlorophyll- produces Glucose & Oxygen. Carried out in plant cells.
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Define: Cellular Respiration
- Process when food is broken down by the body's cells to produce energy in the form of ATP. Carried out in every cell and is important for daily living.
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Why is it possible for organisms to carry out photosynthesis and cellular respiration but not photosynthesis only
Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide which is made through the exhaling of oxygen. In order to get the exhaled or waste air, there first needs to be cellular respiration creating the carbon dioxide.
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Define: Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration involving oxygen. Occurs in two stages: glycolosis & oxidative respiration.
Glycolosis: a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions occurring in the cytoplasm -> one molecule of glucose is converted into 2 pyruvate molecules & 2 ATP molecules.
Oxidative: Occurs in the mitochondria and uses two pyruvate from glycolosis and oxygen to produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide & 32 ATP
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Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
The act of cellular respiration without oxygen.
When oxygen is not available, organisms still produce ATP from glucose by way of fermentation - the pyruvate from glycolosis are converted into lactic acid or ethonal.
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Define: Fermentation
- Two types of fermentation - Ethanol and Lactate
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Ethanol Fermentation
Occurs in the cytoplasm and uses pyruvate produced from glycolysis to make ethonal and carbon dioxide.
Practical Uses: breads, wines, beer, soy sauce.In bread, yeast cells ferment the glucose from the flour to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide, which causes the bread to rise.
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Lactate Fermentation
Occurs in some bacteria and in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the blood can supply oxygen. Begins with glycolosis producing pyruvate from glucose, but a reaction in the cytoplasm converts the pyruvate into lactate. The lactate that builds causes sore, stiff muscles.
Lactate can be converted back to pyruvate once the necessary oxygen is returned to the body - oxygen debt: panting/breathing heavily.
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