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Where air enters respiratory system
Nares
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Area after the nares separated by nasal septum
Nasal cavity
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What separates the nasal passages from the oral cavity?
Hard palate (anteriorly) and soft palate (posteriorly)
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What connects the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and esophagus?
Pharynx
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What are the 3 divisions of the pharynx?
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
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Where are the pharyngeal tonsils located and what is their function?
Posterior wall of nasopharynx; protect respiratory passages from invading pathogens
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Where are the lingual tonsils located?
Part of the oropharynx covering the base of the tongue
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Where are the palatine tonsils located?
Lateral walls of the oropharynx
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What function does the epiglottis serve?
It is a flap like structure of elastic cartilage forms a lid over the larynx when we swallow
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How many cartilages make up the larynx?
9
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What cartilage is the Adams apple?
Thyroid cartilage
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What is the cricoid cartilage?
The inferior ring-shaped cartilage of the pharynx
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What are the two folds formed by the mucous membrane of the larynx?
Vestibular and Vocal folds
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What is the passage between the folds of the larynx called?
Glottis
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What are the vocal cords attached to that controls pitch?
Arytenoid cartilage
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What is the windpipe called?
Trachea
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What are the divisions of the bronchi from largest to smallest?
Primary bronchus -> secondary bronchus -> tertiary bronchus -> bronchioles -> respiratory bronchioles -> alveoli
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How many lobes do the left and right lungs have?
2 and 3
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What layer of the lung attaches it to the thoracic wall and the diaphragm?
Parietal pleura
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What layer of the lung directly covers it?
Visceral pleura
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What separates the two pleural layers and what is its function?
Pleural cavity; produces lubricating serous fluid causing adherence of the two layers
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What type of epithelium forms the respiratory tract?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
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What are the differences between the right and left bronchi in regards to width, length, and orientation
The right is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left
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Why is the trachea reinforced with cartilaginous rings?
To keep airway open regardless of pressure changes curing breathing
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What are the respiratory zone structures?
Alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts, and respiratory bronchioles
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What are the structures of the conducting zone?
All passageways from nasal cavity to the terminal bronchioles
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What is a spirometer?
Measures airflow
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What is a spirogram?
Shows the results of a full breathing test
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What is the amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation and it's volume?
Inspiratory reserve volume and 3100 ml
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What is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions and it's volume?
Tidal volume and 500 ml
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What is the amount if air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation and it's volume?
Expiatory reserve volume and 1200 ml
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What is the volume left in the lungs after the expiratory reserve volume is expelled and it's volume?
Residual volume and 1200 ml
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What makes up the vital capacity and what is it's size?
IRV + TV + ERV which totals 4800 ml
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What makes up the inspiratory capacity and what's it's size?
IRV + TV which total 3600 ml
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What is the volume if total lung capacity?
6000 ml
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What makes up the functional residual capacity and it's volume?
ERV + RV and 2400 ml
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How to calculate minute respiratory volume
TV * respirations per minute
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What does forced expiratory volume measure?
Looks at the percentage of the VC that is exhaled during a specific time interval
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What obstructive disorders effect FEV tests?
Emphysema
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What percentage of total lung capacity should the VC be?
80%
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Identify hyaline cartilage plate
See book
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Identify smooth muscle
See book
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Identify alveoli
See book
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Identify alveolar duct
See book
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Identify a respiratory bronchiole
See book
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Identify capillaries
See book
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What does ventilatio consist of?
Exchange of respiratory gases between atmosphere and lungs
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What two factors does ventilation use?
Gas pressure and muscle contractions
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What is external respiration?
Exhange of gases between lungs and blood
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What does external respiration use?
partial pressure of gases, diffusion, and chemical reactions in transport of O2 and CO2
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What is internal respiration?
Exchange of gases between blood and symtemic tissues
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What does internal respiration use?
Same as external respiration
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What is the first line of protection to keep particles out of the respiratory system?
Vibrissae (hairs)
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What is the function of the nasal conchae?
Increases surface area of mucous membrane, wams and moistens are as it passes.
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Characteristics of the mucosa of the nasal cavity
Non-cilliated with olfactory mucosa with olfactory receptors
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Characteristics of the respiratory mucosa
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
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What opening leads to the pharynx?
Internal nares
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Which division of the pharynx contains the pharyngeal tonsils?
Nasopharynx
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What does the eustachian canal do?
Allows equalization of pressure between the atmosphere and middle ear
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Where is the eustachian canal located?
Nasopharynx
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What canal opens when you yawn?
Eustachian canal
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What type of lining is in the nasopharynx?
PCCE
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What is the lining of the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx?
non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
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What comes after the pharynx?
Larynx
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What bone supports the larynx?
Hyoid bone
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What happens when you swallow?
Hyoid hinges upwards, larynx tilts backwards, and epiglottis lies flat covering the glottis
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What do the vocal cords attach anteriorly to?
Throid cartilage
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What is the function of the vestibular folds?
Catch aspirated matrials
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Does any gas exchange occur in the conducting zone?
No
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What is the begining of the conducting zone?
Trachea
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What composes the upper respiratory division?
nasal cavity and pharynx (and larynx)
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What are the C-ring cartilages of the trachea made of?
Hyaline cartilage
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What is the lining from the trachea to the bronchi?
PCCE
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What cells are in the trachea mucosa?
Cilliated, mucus, serous, brush, and basal cells
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What are brush cells associated with?
Cough and sneeze reflex
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What is a trait of the submuscosa of the trachea?
Abundant fluid production via seromucous glands for muscocilliary escalator
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What type of lymphoid tissue is present in the submucosa of the trachea?
MALT
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What is the purpose of the membraneous portion of C-rings?
Flexible to accomodate the esophagus
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Where is the trachealis muscle?
Part of smooth muscle layer found in the respiratory tree (thickest in membraneous portion and betweeen cartilage rings)
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Where does respiratory smooth muscle disappear?
Respiratory bronchioles
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How does epinephrine effect the respiratory system?
Simulates beta-adrenergic receptors causing brochiole dilation
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What are the branches of the trachea?
Primary bronchi (to each lung), secondary bronchi (to each lobe 2:3), tertiary bronchi (to 18 bronchiopulmonary segments 8:10), bronchopulmonary segments, sub-segmental bronchi, bronchioles
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What are the srtuctural and functional units of the lung?
Bronchopulmonary segments
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What is the last branch of the conducting zone?
Large bronchioles
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What does each bronchiopulmonary segment include?
Branch of the pulmonary artery, vein, and a tertiary bronchus
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What does the lining change to in the bronchioles?
Simple ciliated columnar epithelium
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What happens in the respiratory zone?
Gas exchange between blood and lungs
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What is the lining of the respiratory zone composed of?
simple squamous epithelium with elastic stroma present
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What begins the respiratory zone?
respiratory bronchioles
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What connects respiratory bronchioles to the alveolar sacs?
alveolar ducts
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How does structure match function for the alveoli?
Thin walled with an elastic basement membrane to allow gas transport without water entering
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What cover the alveolar sacs to exchange oxygen?
Pulmonary capillaries
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What are Type I alveolar cells?
Simple squamous cells of alveolar wall
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What are Type II alveolar cells?
Secrete surfactant
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What breaks the surface tension of water in the alveoli?
Surfactant
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Why is surfactant important?
Without surfactant, the alveoli would collapse during expiration
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Where do pulmonary arteries, veins, and bronchi attach to the lungs?
Hilus
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What is the cardiac notch?
Concave shape of the medial border of the left lung
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What is the covering of the lungs called?
Plueral membrane
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What is the inner layer of the pleural membrane called?
Visceral pluera
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What is the outer layer of the plural membrane called?
Parietal pleura
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What is Boyle's law?
Volume and pressure of a gas are inversely proportional
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What is the movement of air in the lungs due to?
Boyle's law (lungs expand increasing volume and decreasing pressure)
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What muscle is responsible for restful ventilation?
Diaphram
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What is the shape of the diaphram when relaxed?
Dome shaped
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Contraction of the diaphram causes what?
Increased lung volume, decreased pulmonary pressur, and then inspiration
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What muscles are used for focred inspiration?
Scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis minor, external intercostals
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What muscles are used for forceful expiration?
Internal intercostals, abdominal rectus and obliques
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How do you calculate Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR)?
Rate X (Tidal volume - 150mL)
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What is the volume of the conducting zone?
150 mL
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What increases ARV more?
Increased volume (rather than increased rate)
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What is pressure inside the lungs called?
Intrapulmonary pressure
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How does intrapulmonary pressure compare to atmospheric pressure?
Oscillates around 0 atm
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How does intrapleural pressure relate to atmospheric pressure?
Always negative (-4 to -8 atm) due to pulling action of ribcage and diaphram on parietal pleura
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What happens if air enters the pleural space (a pneumothorax) or pressure increases?
The lungs collapse
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What is complians/distensibility?
Tendency of the lungs to expand
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What aids compliance/distensibility?
Constant pull and resulting negative pressure of the lungs and surfactant
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What is elasticity/recoil?
Process by which lungs return to their original resting volume
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What is elasticity/recoil due to?
Diaphram relaxing
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What do restrictive disorder affect?
Compliance and/or elasticity
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How does emphysema affect the lungs?
Increases compliance (volume inspired) and decreases elasticity (volume expired and gas exchanged)
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How does pulmonary fibrosis affect the lungs?
Decreases compliance and elasticity
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What can an alpha-1-anti trypsin deficiency lead to?
Emphysema and COPD
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Which type of disorder decreases vital capacity?
Restrictive disorders
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What type of disorder reduces the size op bronchial passageways interfering with airflow?
Obstructive disorders
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What is a characteristic of bronchitis?
Inflammation of the bronchial passage
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What causes obstructive emphysema?
A resulting infection and inflammation of the bronchioles due to regular emphysema
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Emphysema is typically what type of disease?
Restrictive
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What are symptoms of asthma?
Chronic inflammed airways, constriction, and excess mucus
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What type of disease is asthma?
Obstructive
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What is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)?
A mixture of emphysema, bronchitis, and athma
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What is the function of the residual volume?
Keeps alveoli inflated
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What is the functional residual capacity (FRC)?
ERV + RV
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What diseas effects FRC and how?
Emphysema and increases it
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What factor of breathing do obstructive disorders affect?
Rate (ex. FEV1)
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What is Dalton's Law?
The partial pressure of gas in a mixture = the fraction ocupied by the gas X total pressure of mixture
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What does increased water vapor do to partial pressures of other gases?
Decreases them
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What is gas exchange due to?
Concentration gradient of gases
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What is the effect of pO2 on hemoglobin saturation called?
Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
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How does pO2 effect hemoglobin saturation?
Doesn't effect greatly in oxygenated blood, but does in deoxygenated blood
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What effect does lowering pH have on hemoglobin saturation?
Decreases (though greater dissociation of oxygena and hemoglobin)
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What is the Bohr effect?
Describes the result of increased CO2 causing the unloading of O2
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What causes the Bohr effect?
Lowered pH and carbamoino hemoglobin stimulating oxygen unloading
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What is the Haldane effect?
A reduction of oxygen on hemoglobin allowing more CO2 transport
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As elevation increases, atmospheric pressure ______.
Decreases
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What is the primary factor in the effect of altitude on hemoglobin?
2,3 DPG
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What doe 2,3-DPG do?
Attaches to hemoglobin when O2 levels decrease which decreases its affinity for O2
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What is the ventilation-perfusion ratio?
Ratio of alveolar pressure to perfusion of alveolar capillaries
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What happens with ventilation-perfusion coupling?
Alveolar hypoxia (decreased O2) causes local vasoconstriction of arterioles supplying the area
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What are the pressures of oxygen in respiration?
- Inspired air: 160 ppm
- At alveoli: 100 ppm
- Deoxygenated blood: 40 ppm
- Oxygenated blood: 100 ppm
- Expired air: 120 ppm
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What are the pressures of carbon dioxide in respiration?
- Inspired air: 0.3 ppm
- Deoxygenated blood: 45 ppm
- At alveoli: 40 ppm
- Oxygenated blood: 40 ppm
- Expired air: 27 ppm
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How is pH controlled by ventilation?
More CO2 removed increases pH and less CO2 decreases pH
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Where is the respiratory center located?
Medulla of the brainstem
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What controls fine tuned breathing rate and depth?
The pons
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What type of input does the medulla receive for breathing?
Messages from chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and from voluntary centers in the brain
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What do central chemoreceptors in the medulla respond to?
Increased pCO2 and H+ concentration
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What do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to?
Most sensitive to decreased pO2 (must be below 60 mmHg)
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How do mechanoreceptors regulate breathing?
Respond to stretch to reglate depth and rate of breathing
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What does the Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) do?
Sends stim (ramp signals) to muscles of inspiration and produces respiratory rhythm
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What does the Ventral respiratory group (VRG) do?
Has inspiratory and expiratory neurons that are active mostly during forced breathing
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What repiratory group is active in hyperventilation (ex. exercise)?
VRG
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What do pneumotaxis centers control?
When inspiration shifts to expiration (Strong signal decreases inspiration and increases rate)
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What is the response of increased blood CO2 and H+/decreased pH?
Hyperventilation (Increased rate and/or volume)
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What is the response of decreased blood CO2 and H+/increased pH?
Hypoventilation
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What is the response of voluntary hyperventilation?
Decreased blood CO2, increased pH, and decreased stimulus for respiration
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What is the response for voluntary hypoventilation?
Increased blood CO2, decreased pH, and increased stimulus for respiration
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