Biology 1 exam 2

An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy
when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive
endergonic reactions in cells.

The movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with an expenditure
of energy, against its concentration or electrochemical gradient;
mediated by specific transport proteins.

Having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.

An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy
when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive
endergonic reactions in cells.

Membranes have been chemically analyzed and found to be made of?

Effects of Cholesterol on membranes fluidity at warm temperatures, (such as 37 C)

Effects of Cholesterol on membranes fluidity at COOL temperatures

Integral proteins that span the membrane

They hydrophobic regions of an integral protein consist of one or more stretches of

Six major functions of membrane proteins?

cells recognize eachother by _______,often carbohydrates, on the plasma membrane.

The asymmetrical distribution of proteins, lipids, and associated carbohydrates in the plasma membrane is determined when__________.

The permeability of the LIpid Bilayer involves ________, such as hydrocarbons, which can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane rapidly, and _________, such as sugars, that do not cross the membrane easily.

Transport Proteins allow passage of _______ substances across the membrane and are______for the substance it moves.

2 types of transport proteins and function

diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
(down the concentration gradient)
ie diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

The control of water balance in cells without walls

Channel proteins include

The kidney disease Cystinuria is caused by

Sodium Potassium Pump steps of Na and K

the major electrogenic pump for ANIMAL cells

Main electrogenic pump of PLANTS, fungi, and bacteria

moves substances against conconetrations gradiant, requires energy ATP, performed by specific protens embedded in membranes, allows cells to maintain concentration gradients that differ from their surroundings

Large molecules such as polysaccs and proteins cross the membrane in bulk via ________, which requires________.

Three types of endocytosis

a miniature chemical factory where thousands o reactions occur. It also extracts energy and applies energy to perform work.

where some organisms convert energy to light

the totality of an organisms's chemical reactions and an emergent property of life that arises from interactions between molecules within the cell

begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product and each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds ie hydrolysis, cellular respiration (exergonic)

this pathway consumes energy to build complex molectules from simpler ones
ie the synthesis of protein from amino acids, dehydration (endergonic reaction-stores energy)

the capacity to cause change, it exists in various from some of which can peform work; can also be converted from one form to another

energy associated with motion

kinetic energy associated with random movements of atoms or molecules

energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure

potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

the study of energy transformations

As related to thermodynamics, organisms are _______ where energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings.

first law of thermodynamics

Second law of thermodynamics states

During every energy transfer or transformation, some energy is unusable, an is often lost as

Living cells unavoidably convert organized froms of energy to

occurs without energy input; they can happen quickly or slowly

For a process to occur without energy input, it must increase the

Less ordered materials are made into ordered structures by

Organisms also replace ordered froms of ______ and _______ with less ordered forms.

Energy flows into an ecosystem in the form of _____ and exits in the form of _______.

The evolution of more complex organsims does not violate the ____ of thermodynamics.

Entropy (disorder) may _____ in an organism, but the universe's total entropy ______ .

A living system's energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell

Free energy change =

Only processes with a ______ are spontaneous.

a measure of a system's instability, its tendency to change to a more stable state

During a _______, free energy increases and the stability of a system increases

a state of maximum stability is called

Work can only be peformed by a spontaneous process when it is

Relating to free energy and metabolism, what proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous?

Relating to free energy and metabolism, what absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is NOT spontaneous?

this powers cellular work by coupling exeronic reactions to endergonic reactions

a cell does three main kinds of work

cells manage energy resources by ________, or the use of an exergonic proces to drive an endergonic one.

Most energy coupling in cells is mediated by

ATP is the cells enegy shuttle and composed of

The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP's tail can be broken by

Energy is released from ATP when the______________. This release of energy comes from the _____ change to a state of lower free energy, not from the phosphate bonds themsevles.

Three types of cellular work (mechanical, transport, and chemical) are powered by

In the cell, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis can be used to drive an

coupled reactions are

ATP drives endergonic reactions by _________ , transferring a phosphate group to som other molecule, such as a reactant, which makes that recipient molecule phosphorylated.

ATP is a renewable resource that is regenerated by addition of a ______group to ________________.

The energy to phosphorylate ADP comes from ___________in the cell.

temporarily stored in ATP and drives most cellular work

a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction WITHOUT being consumed by the reaction

a catalytic protein

Hydrolysis of sucrose by the enzyme sucrase is an example of

The initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called the

Enzymes catalyze reactions by

Enzymes do not affect the________________; instead, they hasten reactions that would occur eventually

The reactant that an enzyme acts on is called

The enzyme binds to its substrate, forming an

the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds

_______ of a substrate brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction.

The active site can lower an E_A barrier by
1
2
3
4

non protein enzyme helpers that may be inorganic (such as a metal in ionic form) or organic

bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate

bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective

examples of enzyme inhibitors

this may either inhibit or stimulate an enzymes activity; it occurs when a regulatory molecule binds to a protein at one site and affects the protein's function at another site.

in allosteric activation and inhibition the binding of an activator stabilizes the________ form of the enzyme, while the binding of an inhibitor stabilizes the_______form of the enzyme.

a form of allosteric regulation that can amplify enzyme activity; binding by a substrate to one active site stabilizes favorable conformational changes at all other subunits.

Allosteric regulators are attractive drug candidates for enzyme regulation. Inhibition of _______ enzymes called caspases my help management of inappropriate inflammatory responses.

In__________,the end product of a metabolic pathway SHUTS DOWN the pathway

prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synhesizing more product that is needed

Some enzymes act as structural components of ________. In eukaryotic cells, some enzymes reside in specific organelles; ie, enzymes for_________ are located in mitochondria.

partial degradation of sugars that ocurs without O2

Consumes organic molecules and O2 and yelds ATP

consumes compouds other than 02

includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration

cellular respiration equation

The transfer of _____ during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules

chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called

when a substance loses electrons it becomes

when a substance gains electrons it becomes

The electron donor is called the

the electron acceptor is called

What is reduced and what is oxidized during cellular respiration? What does reduced and oxidized mean?

This coenzyme and electron acceptor functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration

represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP, also passes the electrons to the electron transport chain.

passes electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction

pulls electrons down the electron transport chain in an energy yielding tumble and the energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP

summarize the 3 stages of cellular respiration

A smaller amount of ATP (~10%) is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by a mechanism called

Energy investment phase "Priming Phases" of glycolysis 5 steps

1 molecule of NADH gets converted into

1 FADH2 gets converted into

Energy Payoff phase (energy liberation stage) step 6-10

Before the Citric acid cycle can begin, Pyruvate must be converted to acetyle CoA, which links the cycle to Glycolysis. Three steps invovled are:

Citric acid cycle (krebs) oxidizes organic fuel from pyruvate, generating:

Citric (Kreb's) cycle
8 steps
How many ATP?

Following the glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, ____ and ______ account for most of the energy extracted from food.

These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation

the electron transport chain is in the

Most of the____ ____ ___ components are proteins, which exist in multi protein complexes. Some of the electrons are passed through a number of proteins including________(each with an iron atom) to O2

Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2, forming__1___. Electrons are transferred from__2__or__3____ to the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain DOES NOT generate___4_.

function is to break the large free-energy drop from food to O2 into smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts.

_________ in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ (protons) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. H+ (protons) then move back across the membrane passing through channels in_______, which uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of _ _ _.

the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work

The H+ (proton) gradient is referred to as a________, emphasizing its capacity to do work.

The energy-coupling mechanism that couples the redox reactions of the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis

Oxidative Phosphorylation involves
1.
2.

During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence

About ____% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, making about___ATP

Most cellular respiration requires____to produce ATP

Glycolysis can produce ATP _____ or _______ ___ (in aerobic and anaerobic conditions)

In the absence of O2, __________ couples with fermentation or _________ ______ to produce ATP.

uses an electron transport chain wth an electron acceptor other than O2 ie sulfate

uses phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP

Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reaction that regenerate_____, which can be reused by glycolysis.

Two types of fermentation are

Fermentation VS Aerobic Cellular Respiration

carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in the presence of O2

Yeast and many bacteria can survive using either fermentation or cellular resiration because they are_____. ______ is a fork(decision is made) in the metabolic road that leads to two altenative catabolic routes.

Fatty acids are broken down by_______ to generate acetyle CoA > citric acid cycle > oxidative phosphorylation

Sequence to produce ATP

Proteins > 1 ( ) > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5

Amino acids (deamination, NH3 biproduct) >

Sequence of fats to ATP
1
2 2
3 3

If ATP concentration begins to drop,__________; when there is plenty of ATP, _________.

AMP stimulates

During feedback inhibition, having enough citrate means you have enough ATP which means

Autotrophs sustain themsevles and dont' eat anything derived from other organsisms are called_______
heterotrophs obtain their organic material from other organsms and are called _______
Almost all plants are ________, using the enegy of sunlight to make organic molecules from _____ and _____.

Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and likely evolved from_____ ______. This is the site where ________occurs.

CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called

chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the ______, the interior tissue of the leaf

The typical mesophyll has how many chloroplasts?

chlorophyll is in the____ of _____ (connected sacs in the chloroplast). They may be stacke in columns called?

Chloroplasts also contain_____, a dense fluid (inside inner membrane)

Photosynthesis equation?

Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the _____ of hydrogen into ______ _____.

Photosynthesis is a redox process in which ______ is oxidized and _____ is reduced.

Two stages of Photosynthesis

The Light reactions in the ________, split _____, release___, reduce____ to _____ and then generate ____ from ____ by _________ or (___________).

The Calvin cycle begins with _____, incorporating _____ into organic molecules.
It happens in the________, where it forms______from ______, using ____ and _______.

Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical factories that contain _____structures, which transform light energy into the chemcical energy of ____ and _____.

Light is a form of ________energy, also called ________ radiation. This light travels in ____.

Wavelength is the distance between. Wavelength determines the type of ______ ____.

The________ _______ is the entire range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation.

Visible light consists of _________ (including those that drive photosynthesis) that produce colers we can see.

Light asl behaves as though it consists of desgrete particles, called

substances that absorb visible light.

Different _______ absorb different wavelengths. Wavelengths that are not absorbed are ____ or ______.

measures a pigments ability to absorb vairous wavelengths. Sends light through pigments and measures the fraction of light transmitted at each wavelength

a graph plotting a pigments light absorption versus wavelength

the absoption spectrum of chlorophyll a suggests that ____ and ____ light work best for photosynthesis

profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a process

the main photosynthetic pigment

Accessory pigments, such as _____ broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis
Accessory pigments called _______ absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll

When a pigment absorbs light, it goes from a _______ to an_______, which is unstable

When excited electrons fall back to the ground state, _______ are given off, an after glow called _______.

If illuminated, an isolated solution of chlorophyll will____, giving off ___ and ____.

consists of a reaction-center complex ( a type of protein complex) surrounded by light harvesting complexes.

The light harvesting complexes which are ____ molecules bound to _____, funnel energy of photons to the reaction center

A primary electron acceptor in the reaction center accepts an excited electron from __________This solar powered transfer of an electron from a _______ molecule to the primary electron acceptor is the first step of the light reactions.

two types of photosystems in the thylakoid membrane are

During the light reactions, there are two possible routes for electron flow

Linear electron flow

cyclic electron flow

Chloroplasts AND mitochondria generate_____ by chemiosmosis, but use different sources of energy.
Chloroplasts transfrom light energy into the ____ energy of___, while the Mitochondria transfer _____energy from food to ____

In chloroplasts, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space and drive ____ ___ as they diffuse back into the stroma

____ and ____ are produced on the side facing the stroma where the calvin cycle takes place.

light reactions generate ___ and increase the potential energy of electrons by moving them from ____ to _____.

3 phases to Calvin cycle
how many turns?

Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation in hot arid climates

consumes O2, releases CO2 without producing ATP or sugar

An external signal where proteins released be certain cells stimulate other cells to divide

stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture

an external signal in which crowded cells stop dividing

Most cells exhibit______ _________, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide

angiogenesis

A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called

If abnormal cells remain at the orginal site, the lump is called a_________. When the ab cells invade surrounding tissues and metastasize forming secondary tumors they are called________.

Tumor suppressor genes

1
2
3

3 types of genes