syrups, solutions elixirs.

• 1.easier to swallow than solids
• 2.a drug must be in solution before it can be absorbed. a drug administerred in the form of a solution is immediately available for administration.
• 3.a solution is a homogenous system; the drug will be uniformly distributed throughout the prepartion.
• 4. some drugs can irritate and damage the gastric mucosa particularly if localized in one area as often occurs after ingestion of a solid dosage form. irritation is reduced by administration of a solution of a drug, because of the immediate dilution by the gastric contents.

• 1.bulky and inconvenient to transport and store
• 2.the stability of ingredients in aqueous solution is often poorer than if they were formulated as a tablet or capsule.
• 3.solutions provide suitable media for the growth of microorganisms
• 4.accuret dosage usually depends on the abiltity of patient to use a 5 ml spoon or a volumatric dropper.
• 5.the taste of a drug,which is usually unpleasant is always more pronounced when in solution that when in a solid form.

homogenous mixture that are prepared by dissolving a solid, liquid or gas in an aqueous medium (vehicle=water)

• lack of toxicity
• lack of pharmacological activity
• physiological compatibility
• ability to dissolve a wide range of materials
• tasteless
• orderless
• neutral
• very cheap

not permitted to use tap water for the dispensing of pharmaceutical dosage forms due to possibel bacterial contamination and the presence of dissolved salts that destroy the active ingredients or enhance their decomposition

boiling is seldom used to destroy vegetative bacteria. however; on storage for long time spores may yield microorganism.

• must be used for most pharmaceutical operations and in all the tests
• such water is prepared by suitable process: distillatiion, ion-exchange, or reverse osmosis.
• ultraviolet energy,heat or filtration can be used to remove or kill the microorganisms present in the water.
• contains no added substances
• not for parenteral administration

• must be used for the formulationof parenteral solutions
• obtained by sterilizing pyrogen-free distilled water.
• contains no added substances.

• prepared from sterilized water for injection
• contains one or more antimicrobial agents
• it is used to dilute or dissolve particular medicinal substance to be used for as parenteral solutions.

• oldest method of water purification
• water is first heated to boling
• water vapor rises to condenser where cooling water lowers the temperature so the vapor is condensed, collected and stored.
• most contaminats remain behind in the liquid phase vessel.

remove a broad range of contaminants

• some contaminants can be carried into the condensate
• requires careful maintenance to ensure purity
• consumes large amount of energy and water.

ion-exchange equipment passes water through a column of cation and anion exchanger consisting of water-insoluble synthetic resins types

resin made of styrine and divinylbenzen containing sulfonic acid groups which exchange a hydrogen inon for cation( na++,Ca++, AL++++)

resin made of styrine and containing quaternary ammonium groups which exchange a hydroxyl ion for any anions ( Cl-, Co3-)

• no heat requirement
• simpler
• ease of operation
• minimal maintenance

does not effectively removes particles,pyrogens or bacteria

• it is a process known as cross-flow membrane filtration
• it works by using pressure in excess of the osmotic pressureto force a solution through a membrane, retaining the solute on one side and allowing the pure solvent to pass to the other side
• this is the reverse of the normal osmosis process which is the natural movement of solvent from an area of low solute concentration, though a semi-permiable membrane, to an area of high solute concentration when no external pressure is applied.

• effectively removes all types of contaminants to some extent (particles,pyrogens,mo, dissolved salts)
• minimal maintenance

flow rates are usually limited

• clear, saturated aqueous solutions of volatile oils or other aromatic or volatile substances
• they are used principally as flavored or perfumed vehicles
• stability issue :
• 1. oils or volatile substance are not stable, easily oxidized
• 2.store in light container,cool place
• 3.protect from light
• 4.protect from heat
• 5.discard if cloudy or color changes

• the use of alternative solvents
• if it is not possible to ensure complete dissolving of the ingredients at all storage temperatures.
• if the drug is unstable in aqueous systems
• the use of non aqueous systmes may also have other advantages; IM injection of solution of durgs in oils is often used for depot therapy
• solvennt should be: non toxic, non irritant, inexpensive,stable and compatible with other ingredients.
• solvents such as aceton,benszene and petroleum ether are not used ofr internal products.
• internal products may contain ethanol,glycerol,sorbitol,PG and certain oils
• for parentral poducts the choice is very limited

• these are non-volatile oils consisting mainly of fatty acid esters of glycerol
• almond oil, coconut oil
• some fixed oils are sufficiently tastelss and odorless to be suitable for oral use as solvents for such materials as vitamin A and D
• oils tend to be unpleasent to use externally unless presented as an emulsion

• it is the most widely used solvent next to water in pharmacy(primerly solvent for many organic compounds)
• it forms hydroalcoholic mixture with water that dissolves both water soluble and alcohol solube substances. this property is very useful in extraction of active constitents from crude drugs
• alcohol USP: 94.9%, to 96.0% v/v ethanol
• dehydrated alcohol USP: contains no less than 99.5% v/v ehtanol

• alcohol is preferred because of its miscibillity with water and its ability to dissolve many water insoluble drugs, flavorings and preservatives.
• commonly used as a co-solvent, both as a single co-solvent and with other cosolvents( to reduce amount of alcohol used)
• for external application: rapid evaporization after application to the skin imparts a cooling effect.
• it has an antimicrobial property( at a concentration = or greater than 15 %)
• it is used via oral or parenteral routes only at low concentration

• alcohols containing two hydroxyl groups per molecule are known as glycols
• due to their toxicity, they are rarely used internally
• propylene glycol is often used in conjunction with water as a cosolvent
• propylene glycol USP is an odorless, colorless, viscous liquid

• is a polymer composed of repeating units of the monomer ethylene oxide
• the physical state of the polymer is dependent on the number of repeat units (n) and hence on the molecular weight
• lower-molecular weight grades( PEG 200, PEG400) are preferred as co-solvents with water or alcohol in pharmaceutical solutions, HOCH2(CH2CH2O)nCH2OH

• an alcohol possessing three hydroxyl groups per molecule
• odorless,sweet liquid that is miscible with water
• it is used as co-solvent with water and alcohol
• comparable to alcohol, it is viscous, so solutes are slowly soluble in it unless it is rendered less viscous by heating
• it has a preservative property
• unsed in many internal preparations

this is a highly polar compound and is thought to aid the penetration of drugs through the skin

this material is widely used for the extraction of crude drugs

the oily nature of this material makes it unpleasant to use extrenally, although it is often used as a solvent for the topical application of drugs in emulsion formulations

• co-solvents are liquid components that are incorporated into a formulation to enhance the solubility of poorly soluble drugs to the required level
• commonly employed co-solvents include glycerol proylene glycole ethanol and polyethylene glycol
• in practic the pharmaceutical scientists should measure the solubility of the chosen therapeutic agent in a series of mixed solvents to determine the most suitable solvent system for the given purpose
• the final choice of the co-solvent system for a particular formulation involves consideration of the solubility of therapeutic agent in the vehicle, the toxicity of the vehicle and the cost of the formulation
• idealy suitable co-solvent blend should possess values of dielectric constant between 25-80 e.g water /ethanol
• examples a blen of propylen glycole and water to