-
glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is directly related
the pressures that determine net filtration pressure
-
angiotenisin ll and natriuretic peptide
help regulate GFR
-
mechanisms that regulate GFR work by
adjusting blood flow into and out of the glomerulus and by altering the glomerular capillary surface area available for filtration
-
normally GFR increases very
little when systemic blood pressure rises
-
all the following hormone affect Na+ , CL- , CA2+ and water reabsorption and K+ secretion by the renal tubules except
. angiotensin ll
. aldosterone
. ADH
. atrial natriuretic peptide
. thyroid hormore
. parathyroid hormore
thyroid hormore
-
principal cells
cells in the last portion of the distal convoluted tubule and in the collecting ducts , regulated by ADH and aldosterone
-
glomerulus
a capillary network lying in the glomerular capsule and functioning in filtration
-
nephron
the functional unit of the kidney
-
distal convoluted tube
drains into a collecting duct
-
renal corpuscle
combined glomerulus and glomerular capsule , where plasma is filtered
-
podocytes
the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule consisting of modified simple squamous epithelial cells
-
macula densa
cells of the final portion of the ascending limb of the loop of henle that make contact with the afferent arteriole
-
proximal convoluted
site of obligatory water reaborption
-
fenestrations
pores in the glomerular endothelial cells that allow filtration of blood solutes but not blood cells and platelets
-
intercalated cells
can secrete H+ against a concentration gradient
-
juxtaglomerular cells
modified smooth muscle cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole
-
aldosterone
stimulates principal cells to secrete more k+ into tubular fluid and absorb more Na+ and CL- into tubular fluid
-
renin
enzyme secreted by juxtaglomerular cells
-
angiotensin ll
reduces glomerular filtration rate , increases blood volume and pressure
-
atrial natriuretic peptide
inhibits Na+ and H2O reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts
-
ADH
regulates facultative water reabsorption by increasing the water permeability of principal cells in the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts
-
potassium
the most abundant cation in intracellular fluid , plays a key role in establishing the resting membrane potential
-
calcium
the most abundant mineral in the body , plays important roles in blood clotting , neurotransmitter release , maintenance of muscle tone , and excitability of nervous and muscle tissue
-
magnesium
second most common intracellular cation , is a cofactor for enzymes involved in carbohydrate , protein and Na+ , K+ ATPase
-
sodium
the most abundant extracelluar cation , essential in fluid and electrolyte balance
-
phosphate
ions that are mostly combined with lipids , proteins , carbohydrates , nucleic acids , and ATP inside cells
-
chloride
most prevalent extracellular anion , can help balance the level of anions in differen fluid compartments
-
bicarbonate
second most prevalent extracellular anion , mainly regulated by the kidneys , important for acid-base balance
-
buffers
substances that act to prevent rapid , drastic changes in the pH of a body fluid
-
electrolytes
inorganic substances that dissociate into ions when in solution
-
sever diarrhea
metabolic acidosis
-
excessive vomiting
metabolic alkalosis
-
airway obstruction
respiratory acidosis
-
inability of kidneys to excrete H+ from dietary proteins metabolism
metabolic acidosis
-
edem
an abnormal increase in the volume of interstitial fluid
-
hyperphosphatemia
can occur during renal failure or destruction of body cells which releases phosphates into the blood
-
water intoxication
the swelling of cells due to water moving from plasma into interstitial fluid and then into cell
-
dehydration
occurs when water loss is greater than water gain
-
hypernatremia
can be caused by excessive sodium in diet or with dehydration
-
hypovolemia
condition that can occur as water moves out of plasma into interstitial fluid and blood volume decreases
-
hypokalemia
can be caused by decreased potassium intake or kidney disease , results in muscle fatigue , increased urine output , changes in electrocardiogram
-
hypocalcemia
can occur from hypoparathyroidism
-
respiratory acidosis
can be caused by emphysema , pulmonary edema , injury to the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata , airway destruction , or disorders of the muscles involved in breathing
-
hyponatremia
can be caused by excessive water intake , excessive vomiting or aldosterone deficiency
-
metabolic acidosis
can be caused by actual loss of bicarbonate ions , ketosis or failure of kidneys to excreted H+
-
metabolic alkalosis
can be caused by excessive vomiting of gastric contents gastric suctioning use of certain diuretics , severe dehydration or excessive intake of alkaline drugs
-
respirator alkalosis
can be caused by oxygen deficiency at high altituden , stroke , or severe anxiety
-
mucosa
epithelium: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium in the mouth , pharynx , esophagus , and anal canal , protective
-
simple columnar epithelium in the
stomach and intestines , ecocrine cells and endocrine cells
-
lamina propria
areolar connective tissue with blood and lymphatic vessels , routes by which absorbed nutrient are transported to other tissures of the body , mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue ( MALT )
-
muscularis mucosae
thin layer of smooth muscle , makes many small folds in the mucous membrane of stomach and small intestine to increase surface area
-
submucosa
- - areolar connective tissue binding mucosa to muscularis
- - contains many blood and lymphatic vessels
- - submucosal plexus: extensive network of neurons
- - may also contain glands and lymphatic tissue
-
muscularis
- voluntary skeletal muscle found in the mouth , pharynx , upper 2/3 of esophagus and external anal sphincter
- - involuntary smooth muscle in rest of tract : generally arranged in two sheets
- . inner sheet : circular fibers grind
- . outer sheets of longitudinal fibers: push food along
- helps to break down food , mix it with digestive secrections , and propel it along the tract
myenteric plexus between muscle layer: a second network of neurons
-
serosa
- - outermost covering of portions of GI tract suspended in abdominopelvic cavity
- - also called : viseral peritoneum
-
enteric nervous system (ENS)
- - intrinsic set of nerves " brain of the gut "
- - neurons that extend form esophagus to anus
- - 2 plexuses
- - myenteric plexus : GI tract motility
- - submucosal plexus : control secrections
- - chemoreceptor and strectch receptors
-
autonomic nervous system
- - extrinsic set of nerves
- - parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion and motility by stimulating ENS
- - sympathetic stimulation decreases secretions and activity by inhibiting ENs
-
peritoneum
- largest serous membrane of the body divided into
- - parietal peritoneum
- - visceral peritoneum
-
parietal peritoneum
lines wall of abdominopelvic cavity
-
visceral peritoneum
- - covers some organs in the cavity and is their serosa
- - the space between is peritoneal cavity
-
five major peritoneal folds
- - greater omentum
- - falciform ligament
- - lesser omentum mesentery
- - mesocolon
- - mesentery
- - weave between visera binding organs together and to the walls of the abdominal cavity
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