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4 effects of global warming
- higher temperatures
- rising sea levels
- more intense storms
- more hurricanes
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What is global warming attributed to?
increase in methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour, and carbon dioxide
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Global warming
the progressive increase of the Earth's average temperature
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greenhouse effect
the presence of excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
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What is the function of cellular respiration?
Energy stored in chemical bonds of food are turned into energy
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Phosphorylation
transferring a phosphate to another molecule
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respiration equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (as ATP)
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What is cellular respiration
converts energy from food into stored ATP - fuels cells
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Where does most of the cellular respiration occur?
In the mitochondria
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what are the steps of cellular respiration?
- 1. Glycolysis
- 2. Citric Acid Cycle
- 3. Electron Transport Chain
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Where does glycolysis occur?
Cytosol
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What happens in glycolysis?
glucose breaks down to 3 carbons, 2 puyruvic acid molecules -- 2 ATP molecules
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Matrix
semifluid medium inside the mitochondrian
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what does the citric acid cycle release?
Electrons from the carbon containing compounds it receives from glycolysis
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Define NAD+
electron carrier utilized by cellular respiration - nicotamide adenine dinucleotide
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fats are broken down into"
fatty acids, glycerol
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carbs are broken down into what?
Glucose
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proteins are broken down into what?
Amino Acids
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urea
breakdown of amino acids, excreted in urine
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lactic acid
produced by actions of NADH-byproduct of human fermentation
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What foods are produced from anaerobic respiration?
yogurt, sour cream, cheese, soy sauce, bread, alcohol
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Water can absorb and store a large amount of heat in its hydrogen bonds
true
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tumor
mass of cells that has no apparent function in the body
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benign
tumors that don't affect surrounding structures and stay in one place
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malignant
tumors that invade surrounding structures
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metastasis
when cancer cells of a malignant tumor break away and start new cancers in distant locations
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lymphatic system
collects fluids lost from capillaries
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lymph nodes
structures that filter lost fluids
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3 ways cancer cells differ from normal cells
- divide when they shouldn't
- invade surrounding tissues
- move to another location in the body
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8 risk factors for getting cancer
- tobacco
- age
- diet
- obesity
- lack of exercise
- sun exposure
- fair skin
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9 types of cancer and risk factors with each
- ovary
- breast
- cervix
- testicle
- blood
- skin
- lung
- colon and rectum
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free radicals
remove electrons from other molecules
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why is cell division necessary?
- to heal wounds
- replace damaged cells
- help organisms grow and reproduce
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define genes
instructions in DNA
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chromosomes
stuctures that contain genes
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why do chromosomes condense?
- easier to move
- less likely to break
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sister chromatids
copied chromosomes
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centromere
middle of replicated chromosome
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what makes up dna?
nitrogenous bases with a sugar, phosphate backbone
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semiconservative replication
DNA that contains half of conserved parental DNA and half daughter DNA
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What does DNA polymerase do?
assist DNA replication
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what are 3 phases of cell cycle
- interphase
- mitosis
- cytokinesis
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3 phases of interphase and what happens in each?
- G1 most of cell's organelles duplicate, cells grow larger
- S DNA replicates
- G2 proteins are synthesized that will help drive mitosis to completion
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What are the phases of mitosis and what happens?
- prophase
- metaphase
- anaphase
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cytokinesis
cellular division
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how do animal cells split?
cytokinesis
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where are the checkpoints in the cell cycle?
during G1, G2, and metaphase
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mutation
change in the sequence of DNA
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tumor suppressors
genes that carry instructions for producing proteins that suppress cell division if conditions aren't favorable
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antiogenesis
formation of new blood vessels
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contact inhibition
a property that keeps cells from dividing when doing so would require them to pile up on each other
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anchorage dependence
contact with underlying cells to stay in place
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radiation
uses high energy particles to injure or destroy cells by damaging DNA
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meiosis
form of cell division
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where does meiosis occur?
specialized cells within gonads
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gametes
specialized sex cells: sperm, eggs
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somatic cells
cells that contain 46 chromosomes
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how many chromosomes do haploid and diploid cells have?
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autosomes
22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes
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sister chromatids
either of 2 duplicated, identical copies of a chromosome
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phases of meiosis and what happens in each phase
- Prophase-nuclear envelope starts to break down, microtubules start to assemble, DNA condenses into chromosomes
- Metaphase I-chromosomes align in middle of cell
- Anaphase I-chromosomes separated by shortening of microtubules
- Telophase I - 2 daugher cells, nuclear envelopes reform
- Meiosis II-
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crossing over
exchange of portions of chromosomes from one to another
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random alignment
when members of homolagous pairs line up randomply with response to maternal or paernal origin and increase the diversity of the offspring
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nondisjunction
failure of chromosomes to separate
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monsomy
absence of one chromosome of a homologous pair
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examples of conditions of nondisjunction of autosomes
- trisomy 21 - downs
- trisomy 13 - patau
- trisomy 18 - edwards
- XO - turner
- X- Meta
- XXY - Klienfelter
- xyy - condition
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