Learning

relatively permanent change in behavior

• we learn by association
• Antecedents->behavior->consequences

learning to associate one stimulus with another

• Two related events: Result after repetition
• Lighting we see lighting
• thunder we anticipate thunder

learn to associate a response with a consequence

• Response: Pushing a vending machine button
• Consequence: receiving a candy bar (behavior strengthen)

elucidated classical conditioning (Russian physiologist )

Provided a basis for later behaviorist like John Watson

• Involuntary responses.
• –Conditioning involves pairing 2 stimuli.
• –Control by antecedents. Behavior is elicited.

Produces a response without previous learning.

unlearned response

• Previously neutral stimulus
• that elicits a response after being paired with the Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

learned response to CS after pairing of UCS-CS. Similar to UCR.

food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

The initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between NS & UCS takes place

CS precedes the USC (tone presented and remains on while food is presented)

Most effective

CS presented first but ends before the UCs occurs

ring bell, then food, will work but takes longer

CS and UCS presented at same instant

same time / just focused on food

• CS follows the UCs (tone after food)
• food, ring bell

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually ceases

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers when CS presented, but if the CS persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again

• Go back to conditional (what they first learned)
• adaptive, safety, protective mechanism

is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

• Reconditioning a previously extinguished stimulus to become a CS once again is usually faster the
• second time around.

• A well learned CS can become a UCS to another CS
• Can have second-order conditioning , third-order conditioning, etc.
• Example
• Bell (CS1) ->Salivation (CR)
• If repeat: Clap (NS) + Bell (CS1) ->Salivation (CR) Eventually Clap (CS2) -> Saluivation (CR)

Watson & Raynor (1920) used classical conditioning procedures to condition little Albert’s fear response.

• US- loud noise
• UR-cry/fear
• CS- white rat
• CR- cry fear
• generalized - everything white and fluffy made him cry

Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.

Hearing the sound of a toilet flush-> hot water-> flinch

Behaviors followed by positive outcomes strengthen, while those followed by negative outcomes weaken.

• Conditioning of operants (deliberate actions) involves response contingent consequences.
• Behavior is emitted then controlled by consequences.

2.Classical conditioning involves respondents Operant conditioning involves operants

Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

The operant conditioning chamber/skinner box comes with a bar that an animal manipulates to obtain food or water and has a grid on the ground through which electrical current can pass.

Skinner concluded that 2 types of Consequences control behavior, each has two forms.

An event that increases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it.

Strengthening a behavior you want strengthened

desirable event follows behavior

an unpleasant even ends when behavior occurs

subtracts something away that increases desirable behavior

• An event that decreases the
• frequency of behaviors that preceded it.

something aversive occurs

something desirable is taken away

add a desirable stimulus

getting a hug, receiving a pay check

remove an aversive stimulus

fastening a seatbelt to turn of beeping

Administer an aversive stimulus

spanking parking ticket

withdraw a desirable stimulus

• time out from privileges (such as time with friends)
• revoked driver's license

• 1.Escape/avoidance behaviors negatively reinforced lying, cheating, blaming, anyway to avoid
• 2.Use of punishment negatively reinforced short term and quick results, and must become more severe as time goes on
• 3.User established as a conditioned punisher the kid will want to avoid you
• 4.Conveys no information to the organism. never learned why it was bad
• 5.Unwanted behaviors reappear in its absence.when you leave they will do the behavior again
• 6.Ethical issues: justifies aggression on weaker other & models use of punishment if you have power over someone doesn't mean you should use it

An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. No learning needed. Inherently valuable.

warmth, approval

A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

what matters is the other persons view (aversive)

a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior (right at the beginning of a behavior )

most effective

A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior

immediate signal

Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.

Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

depend on rate of responding

depend on time

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

most resistant to extinction

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

produces a steady response

Gradual decrease in behaviors that are no longer reinforced

• Procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations
• • Used if behavior never occurs and instructions/modeling not applicable /effective
• • Reinforce behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior & stop reinforcing previous approximations
• • Sometimesusedaccidentallytodevelopproblem behaviors

• Involves systematic use of conditioned reinforcers (tokens) to increase desirable behaviors
• – Present tokens immediately after desirable behavior & pair token delivery with descriptive praise
• – Tokens exchanged for back-up reinforcers. – Begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement
• & a generous exchange rate
• – Fade tokens gradually & let natural reinforcers maintain target behavior.

• Behavioral learning involves cognitive aspects & inner processes that traditional behaviorists ignored. Skinner
• criticized for dehumanizing people by neglecting their free will.

Even with out reinforcement,rats learned to run a maze. Performance, but not learning, improved with reinforcement.

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent only when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Bandura’s bobo doll study (1961) on modeling & vicarious conditioning

Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.