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What is science?
- - A method of inquiry.
- - Explore patterns of interrelationships
- - Explore cause and effect relationships
- - Theory + research methods + statistics
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What is human inquiry?
- Causal and probablistic reasoning (variability)
- Second hand knowledge
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What are the types of second hand knowledge?
- Traditional - friends/family
- Authority - professors/president
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T/F - Do todays actions cause tomorrows effects?
TRUE
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T/F - Effects are more likely to occur if associated with a cause?
TRUE
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6 errors in human inquiry?
- Inaccurate observations
- Overgeneralization
- Selective observations
- Illogical reasoning
- Made up Information
- Egos
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What does the research process tell us?
How and why things happen.
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T/F - Can research be disorganized?
False - organized systemic sequential
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7 components of research process
- Identify a problem
- Clear statement of problem
- Sub divide problem
- Research question/hypothesis
- Create a study design
- Collect Data
- Interpret Data
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Whats the most important factor in writing a clear statement of problem?
Written to imply measurement
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What happens when you sub divide a problem?
You develop a hypothesis
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What makes a study design good?
- Controls for extraneous problems as much as possible to ensure findings.
- Wanna look at design, validity, reliability, sample section processes, inclusion criteria
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What occurs when you collect data?
You are applying the methodology into action and making sure no contamination occurs during the process
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What two types of data can you interpret?
- Quantitative
- Qualitative
- Either supports or refutes your hypothesis
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What is the hourglass notion of research?
- Broad Questions
- Narrow it down/focus in
- Operationalize
- Observe
- Analyze data
- Reach conclusion
- Generalize back to questions
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What is a variable? Types?
- Outcome that can take on more than one value.
- Independent
- Dependent
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Is it best to measure a variable as accurately as possible?
Yes, the more precise the more useful the measurement is
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What are independent variables?
- Treatment/conditions controlled by researcher
- Need at least 2 values of IV
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What are dependent variables?
Outscomes of research study
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Is an independent variable confounded?
NO
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Does the dependent variable affected by independent variables?
Yes, it is sensitive to changes of IV
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What are theories?
systematic explanations of observed facts
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What are hypothesis?
expectations about empirical reality
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What are laws?
universal generalization about facts
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Why is a research hypothesis needed?
To compare to the null hypothesis and to be tested during research process
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Does the hypothesis need to reflect the general problem of the study?
Yes, so you can test the general problem and hypothesis should be made into a mathematical statement
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What is a Null Hypothesis?
- Starting point for analysis and used for comparison.
- States there's no relationship between independent and dependent variables.
- H0: m1 = m2
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What is a research hypothesis?
- States a relationship exists between IV and DV
- H1: X1 not = X2
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T/F Research hypothesis is equal.
FALSE - statement of inequality H1: x1 not= x2 always.
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What is a nondirectional research hypothsis?
groups are different, but no direction specified (H1: x1 not= x2)
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What is directional research hypothesis?
group is different, and direction is specified (H1: x1 >/< x2)
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What makes a good hypothesis?
- Testable
- Brief and to the point
- Declarative form
- Reflects theory or literature
- Posits a relationship between variables
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What does the population represent?
The entire group of interest
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What consists of a sample?
The representative portion of a population
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Should results of a sample be generalized to a population?
Yes, if sample was chosen randomly
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Do observed differences result from the treatment or from chance?
Treatment
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What is significance level?
Risk associated with not being 100% certain the null hypothesis is wrong
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What makes a good research paper?
- Research conducted and sequence it was carried out.
- Narrative story in third person
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What are the 7 parts of a research study?
- Intro
- Lit Review
- Methodology
- Results
- Discussion
- Limitations
- Conclusion
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What do you want in a good intro?
- Capture readers attention
- Purpose of study
- Background to justify study
- Objective of Study
- Identify limitations and assumptions
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What is in a literature review?
- Establishes need for study.
- Other relevant studies
- Historical perspective of teh problem
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How do you review literature?
- Define idea in general terms using general sources.
- Search through secondary sources
- Search through primary sources
- Organize notes
- Write the proposal
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What are considered to be general sources?
- Newspapers
- Magazines
- Periodicals
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What are considered secondary sources?
- Books on specific subjects
- Reviews of research
- "once removed" from the original work
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What are considered primary sources?
- Journals
- Abstracts
- Scholarly books
- Educational resources info center (ERIC)
- "original" reports
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Is the internet a good source to use?
NO, its unregulated
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What is the best source?
Journals because its written in specific formats and are peer reviewed
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What is an abstract?
1-2 paragraph summary of what journal is about
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What programs are out there to search for abstracts?
- Pubmed
- Medline
- Psychabstracts
- Psychinfo
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What is the best thing to use for searching for research?
Computers, but its EXPENSIVE
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What are the 5 main points in methodology section?
- Study design & protocol
- Subjects
- Treatment
- Measurement and Observation
- Statistical Analysis
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What is a good study design and protocol?
- Randomness
- Study and control grp
- inclusion/exclusion criteria
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What section do you talk about blindness in the methodology section?
Measurement and Observation
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What does the statistical analysis section in methodology talk about?
what programs/tests did u use and why
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What do you talk about in the discussion section of a research paper?
The answer to the question and the evidence and counter evidence to it.
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What 3 sections does a proposal consist of?
Intro, Lit Review, Methodology
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What are the 6 basic principles of ethical research?
- Protect participants
- Secure personal info
- Don't coerce to be participant
- Explain study to them after its complete
- Split equally all beneficial outcomes ($$)
- Know what is involved in the study
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How to ensure HIGH ethical standards?
- Report info as grp not individual
- Informed consent
- IRB approval
- Start with small sample if possible if side effects
- Computer simulation
- If harmful find participants who have been naturally treated
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What does IRB stand for?
Institutional Review Board
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What do the Institutional Review Board do?
- Look at proposed methods and study designs whether it is ethical.
- Looks out for the participants safety
- Only approve proposals if benefits > risks.
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AHHHH what is the Declaration of Helsinki?
- Statement of Ethical principles
- Guildlines to conduct research
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US research rules?
- Guided by federal government Title 45 CFR part 46
- Established IRB's to review and monitor research
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What is the structure of research that is the "glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project together?
Reasearch Design
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How is a one grp study represented? control grp?
- 1 line and has no control grp
- R O X O or R X O
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How is a 2 grp study represented?
- 2 lines one control one test grp
- R O X O = test
- R O X O = control
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What each letter R O X O, represent in a study design?
- R = randomly assigned
- O = pretest/posttest measurements
- X = treatment
- ~ = no
- ~X = no treatment
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What is another way of saying R O X O? R X O?
- R O X O = 1 grp before and after only design = 1GBAO
- R X O = 1 grp after only design = 1GAO
- 2 lines of ^^ = 2 grp after only design = 2GAO
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What are the 6 single grp threats to measure outcomes?
- History
- Instrumentation
- Maturation
- Testing
- Mortality
- Regression
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If a relationship is shown does it mean it's a causal one?
No, other variables can cause the same outcome.
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What is validity?
Accuracy, everything is correct
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What are the 4 validities?
- Construct
- Conclusion
- External
- Internal
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What is internal validity?
Evidence to prove what you did caused what you observed
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What are the threats to internal validity?
alternative causes that can cause differences in the posttest
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What is history threat?
A historical event that caused the outcome not the treatment.
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What is maturation threat?
Same exact outcome even without treatment
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What is testing threat? What design does it only occur in? How to prevent it?
- Pre-post test design.
- The pretest prepared participants for program.
- Give a posttest only but history threat becomes problem.
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What is instrumentation threat? What design does it occur in?
- Pre/Post test design.
- Change in instrumentation leads to the outcome.
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What is mortality threat?
- Participants dropping out of study.
- Only problem in a pre-post design can skew results.
- Ex. someone with low score drops out
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Whats the only way that you can say generalization?
Did random sampling/selection
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What does it mean when the grps were not comparable before the study?
You had selection bias/threat
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What is selection threat?
Any factor other than the program that leads to posttest differences between grps
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What is a HUMAN activity?
Applied social research
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The 3 types of social threats?
- Diffusion or Imitation of treatment
- Compensatory Rivalory
- Resentful Demoralization
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What is Diffusion or imitation of treatment?
The control grp learns about the program from the test grp and decreases chance of seeing any program effect.
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What is compensatory rivalry?
- The control grp knows that the program grp is getting and becomes competitive with them.
- Increases chance of seeing no program effect even if program is effective
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What is resentful demoralization?
- The control grp know what program grp gets
- Get discouraged and angry.
- Get exaggerated posttest differences so program looks more effective than it actually is.
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What are pitfalls you want to avoid?
- Loving idea too much.
- Try something new not trivial.
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What is inferential method based on?
Inferring sample to a population
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What is probability sampling?
The likelihood of any member of the population being selected is known.
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What is nonprobability sampling?
Likelihood of any member of the population being selected is unknown.
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What does simple random sampling do?
Makes sure each member of a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
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How do you chose a simple random sample?
- Know your population.
- List all members in it.
- Assign them a number.
- Use a criteria to select sample.
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Keys to success in simple random sampling?
- RANDOMNESS
- Selection criteria should not be related to factor of interest!
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What is systematic sampling?
- Divide population by size of desired sample ex. 50/10 = 5
- Start at a random # and choose participant by every other 5.
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What is stratified sampling?
Random sample is selected that reflects the proportions in the popultion ex. 40% male 60% female
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When do you use stratified sampling?
- When people in the population differ along some characteristic that relates to factors being studied.
- ex. gender
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What is cluster sampling?
- Randomly select grps of individuals.
- NO RANDOM INDIVIDUAL SELECTION
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How do you avoid BIAS in cluster sampling?
Grps have to be homogenous.
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What are the 2 nonprobablity sampling strategies?
- Convenience sampling
- Quota sampling
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What is convenience sampling?
Easy or captive sampled population
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What is quota sampling?
Select people of interest until quota is met
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What is sampling error?
- Difference between sample and population characteristics.
- Want this to be low by increaseing sample size
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Does larger samples ignore the power of scientific inference?
Yes
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How big is too big for sample size?
Larger the better more representative but more expensive.
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When do you need a large sample size?
- Large variability within each grp
- Small differences between each grp
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Do all measurement data contain errors?
Yes
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What is reliability?
- Consistent, stable, dependable, predictable, accurate.
- Low amt of errors.
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What is the true score model?
- X = T +or- E
- An observed score = true score plus an unknown amt of error
- Always some type of error
- Ave. observed score good estimate of true score
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What assumptions can you assume about true score errors?
- Random errors not systemic
- Can be + or -
- No correlation with magnitude of true score
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T/F Is error the foundation of unreliabiltiy?
True
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What are the 2 types of measurement error?
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What is systemic error?
- Predictable and not part of true score model.
- Has to do more with validity of a measuring instrument.
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What is random error?
- Due to chance. Ex. person moved while being measured.
- Can effect observed score.
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What causes random measurement error?
- The person taking the measurement
- The instrument itself
- Variablility of characteristic being measured because its not stable
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Can the tester or subject cause error?
Yes
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What are the three types of reliability?
- Test-retest
- Rater
- Alternate Forms
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What is test-retest reliability?
- Doing a self-report, physical, physiological test then doing the same test again at a different time.
- Minimize testing effects.
- Have sufficient intervals before next test.
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What is rater reliability?
- The rater/s is consistent in applying criteria.
- Make them practice, take tests, training, grade/score them to be more reliable.
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Do you check intra-rater reliability or inter-rater reliability first?
intra-rater reliability
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What is alternate forms reliability?
- Paper tests, psychological tests.
- Parallel forms of tests
- Equivalent forms of tests
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What do you want in internal consistency with tests?
Measure a single thing and nothing else
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What is split-half reliability?
- Split test into two halves.
- Score each separately and correlate the scores together.
- If internally consistent then have high correlation.
- Prefer method to establish reliability since there is no time lag.
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What is the range of reliability coefficients?
0-1
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What is reliability a pre-requisite to?
Validity
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