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Attention
- an active process; we control what we attend to
- Bottom-Up Processing:
- - attention driven by eternal stimuli
- - reflexive, non-volitional
- (ex. sudden events, objects)
- Top-Down Processing
- - attention driven by internal factors
- - volitional, self-directed, deliberate
- (ex. expertise, expectancy - change blindness)
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Attention & Task
- we selectively attend to both objects and tasks
- Problems with multitasking:
- 1. Affects object selection
- (ex. Handy - visual cortex less sensitive to peropheral details when multitasking)
- 2. Overloads shared processes
- (ex. Boroditsky - for Russian speakers in the 'near' condition, color discrimination and verbal task both use language processes)
- 3. Attentional set shifting
- - attentional set = object and process selection parameters for a task
- - multitasking involves rapid shifting of attention from one task to another, not division
- (ex. Meyers - attentional set shifting impairs performance for both complex and simple tasks)
- (ex. Strayer - cell phone use while driving is equal to driving while drunk)
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Attention & Priming
- Semantic Associations
- - linkages between objects, concepts, and ideas
- (ex. color - red is associated with vigilance and avoidance; blue associated with openness and approach)
- (ex. priming - associations with age, rudeness, and race)
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Rationality
- Rational Choice Theory:
- 1. Individual has complete info
- 2. Individual has cognitive ability to decide
- 3. Individual has sufficient time to decide
- 4. Preferences are stable and transitive
- 5. Value of gains vs. losses is equal
- Prospect Theory
- - Negative value of losses > positive value of gains
- - Satisficing: single-factor decision-making
- - Bounded rationality and use of heuristics under constraints (ex. recognition heuristic)
- - Heuristics are fast and frugal, based on a single factor, adaptive
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Perspective & Bias
- Prospect Theory & Loss Aversion
- - people are more likely to pay to avoid a loss than pay for a gain
- Free Effect
- - people are biased toward things that are free
- - an emotional, impulsive response
- - effect disappears after analysis
- Curse of Knowledge
- - biased assumption that others share our knowledge
- Relative Perspective
- - tendency to de-emphasize the impact of our actions upon others, over-emphasize impact of others' actions on us
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Implicit Learning
- - acquiring knowledge without intending to do so, without being consciously aware of learning
- (ex. HM - implicit motor learning; van Nurennout - implicit spatial learning/ navigational route learning)
- - implicit and explicit learning systems are independent and distince
- (ex. MS - intact explicit learning, but no implicit learning; double dissociation with HM)
- - there are separate systems even within the implicit learning system
- (ex. MS - intact implicit conceptual learning, but not perceptual learning)
- Meaning Maintenance Model
- - when faced with dissociations in meaning, we implicitly search for new patterns in the environment
- (ex. Heine)
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Self-Reflection
- - we have poor knowledge of the reasons behind our actions and feelings
- - reasoning interferes with our evaluation of our real feelings
- (ex. Wilson - relationship and puzzle analysis)
- - we can be led to think we're affected by something, even when we're not
- - reasoning via rumination perpetuates depression and anger
- - reasoning and conscious deliberation interferes with insight problem-solving
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