Human Physiology 19

What must living organisms continuously have in order to overcome the second law of thermodynamics?

What molecule is the energy currency of all living systems?

What three types of molecules provide energy to the body?

What is the most common unit of measure of energy in food?

What is a calorie?

How many calories are in carbohydrates, proteins, and fats respectively?

What is the total rate of body metabolism, that is, the amount of O₂ consumed by the body/minute?

What is the metabolic rate of an awake, relaxed person 12-14 hours after eating and at a comfortable temperature?

List five factors that influence basal metabolic rate.

What are all the chemical reactions in the body?

In what type of metabolism do synthesis and energy storage reactions occur?

In what type of metabolism do energy liberating reactions occur?

What type of reactions synthesize DNA and RNA, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates?

What is the rate at which a molecule is broken down and resynthesized?

What are small organic molecules that serve as coenzymes in metabolism or have highly specific functions and must be obtained in diet because the body does not produce them, or does so in insufficient amounts?

What are the two classes of vitamins?

List the four major fat-soluble vitamins.

List the major water-soluble vitamins.

What group of nutrients are inorganic and are needed as cofactors for specific enzymes and other critical functions?

What minerals are needed in relatively large amounts daily?

What class of minerals are required in only relatively small amounts each day?

List the eight trace elements.

What molecules have an unpaired electron in their outer orbital and are thus highly reactive and oxidize or reduce other atoms?

What are the three important physiological functions of free radicals?

What is the general negative effect of free radicals?

How does the body protect itself from free radicals?

What substances serve as energy reserves in the body?

What energy sources circulate in the blood?

How does the body appear to maintain a certain amount of adipose tissue?

The number of adipocytes increases greatly shortly after birth. What stimulates the mitotic division and differentiation of adipocytes?

Name the general group and give a specific example of hormones secreted by adipocytes.

What is the general effect of the changes in the levels of adipokines that occur with the onset of obesity?

What is the relationship between starvation or malnutrition and the resulting low levels of leptin and the immune system?

How does obesity differ between child and adults?

What is the formula for body mass index (BMI)?

Healthy weight is in what range of BMI?

In terms of BMI, what is obesity?

In terms of BMI, what is overweight?

What part of the brain is at least partially involved in the control of hunger?

What neurotransmitters promote overeating?

What neurotransmitter suppresses overeating?

What digestive organs help to regulate hunger?

What hormone secreted by adipocytes increases as stored fat increases and acts to suppress hunger?

What percentage of daily calorie expenditure is used to maintain the basal metabolic rate?

What percentage of daily caloric expenditure is normally use in response to temperature changes and for digestion?

In what three ways are calories used?

What term refers to the 4-hour period after eating when energy substrates from digestion are used and deposited in storage forms?

What term refers to the condition following the absorptive state?

What two cell types involved in energy homeostasis occur in the pancreatic islets?

What two hormones are secreted by the pancreas?

What is the effect of glucagon on blood glucose levels?

What is the effect of insulin on blood glucose?

What type of pancreatic islet cell secretes glucagon?

What type of pancreatic islet cell secretes insulin?

What is the normal fasting glucose level?

Insulin normally prevents blood glucose from rising above what level?

Glucagon normally prevents blood glucose from falling below what level?

What is the overall effect of insulin?

What does an oral glucose tolerance test assess?

How does glucagon maintain blood glucose above 50 mg/dl?

What is the effect of the parasympathetic division of the ANS on insulin secretion?

What is the effect of the sympathetic division of the ANS on pancreatic islet cells?

Why might blood glucose levels initially fall as a meal is ingested?

What is the main characteristic of diabetes mellitus?

What form of diabetes mellitus is an autoimmune disease in which pancreatic islet cells are destroyed resulting in insufficient insulin secretion?

What form of diabetes mellitus is due to lack of effect insulin?

What form of diabetes mellitus is most common?

In diabetes lipolysis leads to the release of fatty acids which then converted to ketone bodies. An excess of ketone bodies may lead to what condition?

What type of diabetes mellitus is slow to develop, has a multigene inheritance pattern, involves insulin resistance, is usually accompanied by normal to high insulin levels, is not usually accompanied by ketoacidosis, and is treatable by exercise and diet?

What is the effect of exercise that may help treat diabetes mellitus type II?

What condition results from an oversecretion of insulin due to an exaggerated response of beta cells to a rise in glucose?

What condition results in tremors, hunger, weakness, blurred vision, and confusion due to low blood glucose?

What two hormones are similar to glucagon in their effects in that they stimulate glycogenolysis and lipolysis?

What hormone supports the effects of glucagon and is secreted in response to ACTH as a result of stress including fasting and exercise?

What hormone sets BMR, is necessary for growth and develpment, and increases metabolic heat?

What hormone of the anterior pituitary stimulates growth in children and adolescents and has important metabolic effects in adults?

Excess growth hormone secretion in children produces what condition?

Inadequate secretion of growth hormone during childhood produces what condition?

Excess growth hormone secretion in adults, after epiphyseal discs are ossified, results in what condition?

What condition causes the growth of soft tissue resulting in the elongation of the jaw, deformities in the hands, feet, and bones of the face, but no increase in height?

What part of the body acts as a storage for calcium and phosphate?

What type of bone cells form bone?

What type of bone cells reabsorb bone?

What type of bone cells are most active during skeletal growth?

What type of bone cells are most active during osteoporosis?

What opposing actions within the skeletal system allow the position of teeth to be shifted through the use of braces?

What hormone is most important in the control of blood calcium levels, is released in response to low blood calcium, stimulates osteoclasts to reabsorb bone, stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb calcium from the filtrate, and promotes the formation of vitamin D?

What hormone is the antagonist to parathyroid hormone?

What hormone works to reduce blood calcium?

What endocrine gland makes calcitonin?

What substance is synthesized in the skin when a cholesterol derivative is converted to it by sunlight?

What substance simulates intestinal absorption of Ca₂⁺ and PO₄3^-, directly stimulates bone
reabsorption by promoting formation of osteoclasts, stimulates kidney to reabsorb Ca₂⁺ and PO43 while simultaneously raising Ca₂⁺ and PO₄3^- resulting in increased tendency of these to
precipitate as hydroxyapatite, and is stimulated by PTH?

Inadequate vit D in the diet and body can cause what two conditions related to loss of bone calcification?