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Define Physiology. Describe the relationship between Physiology and Anatomy.
- Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts, including chemical and physical processes.
- Anatomy and Physiology cannot truely be separated. The function of a tissue or organ is closely tied to its structure.
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Name the 10 systems of the body and their major function:
- 1. Circulatory - transport materials between all cells of the body.
- 2. Digestive - conversion of food into particles that can be transported into the body; elimination of wastes.
- 3. Endocrine - coordination of body function through synthesis and release of regulatory molecules.
- 4. Immune - defense agains foreign invaders.
- 5. Integumentary - protection from external enviornment.
- 6. Musculoskeletal - support and movement
- 7. Nervous - coordination of body function through electrical signals and release of regulatory molecules.
- 8. Reproductive - perpetuation of the species
- 9. Respiratory - exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the internal and external environments.
- 10. Urinary - maintenence of water and solutes in the internal environment; waste removal.
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Define Homeostasis. Name some physiological parameters that are maintained homeostatically.
Homeostasis is organisms keeping their internal environment relatively stable. Ex. blood pressure, blood glucose, body temperature, and water balance
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Four major themes in physiology:
1. homeostasis and control system - balance, integration of body system functions, dynamic equilibrium (temp, pH, blood pressure)
2. biological energy use - constant E input needed
3. structure-function relationships - molecular interactions, compartmentation
4. communication - cells communicate with other cells, tissues & organs. Membrane transport, signal transduction (electrical and chemical)
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Independant variable
altered variable
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Dependant variable
dependendent on the independent variable
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Teleological
the function, "why does the system exist and why does the event happen?"
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Mechanistic
the process, "how"
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blind study
subjects do not know whether they are receiving the placebo or the treatment
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double blind study
there is a 3rd party not involved in the expirement who is the only one who knows whether the subject is receiving the treatment or the placebo
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crossover study
the control group in the first half of the expirement becomes the experimental group in the second half, vice versa
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Which organ systems are responsible for coordinating body function?
Nervous and Endocrine system
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Which organ system is responsible for protecting the body from outside invaders?
Immune system
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Which organ systems exchange materials with the external environment? What do they exchange?
- Respiratory system - exchanges gases
- Digestive system - absorbs nutrients and water, eliminates wastes
- Urinary system - removes excess water and waste material
- Reproductive system - produces egg and sperm
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Genomics
genome -> genes -> DNA -> information
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Proteomics
proteins -> functional -> enzymes
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Regulation of plasma calcium concentrations
- calcium: 1. muscle contractions
- 2. bone density
- 3. signal
Endocrine -> antagonists, Skeletal, Digestive system
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Antagonist:
Ex. parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, Vitamin D
substance that opposes the action of another
hormones or neurons with opposing effects on some homeostatic functions
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Compartmentation
allows a cell, a tissue, or an organ to specialize and isolate functions.
tiny compartments within the cell : organelles
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nocebo effect
if you warn people that a drug they are taking may have specific adverse side effects, those people will report a higher incidence of the side effects than a similar group of people who were not warned
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placebo effect
if you give someone a pill and tell the person that it will help aliviate some problem, there is a strong possibility that the pill will have exactly that effect, even if it contains only sugar
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bar graphs
used when the independent varibables are distinct entities.
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line graphs
commonly used when the independent variable is on a continuous phenomenon
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scatter plot
shows relationship between two variables
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List 4 kinds of Biomolecules
- carbohydrates - glucose
- lipids - cholesterol
- proteins - creatine, collagen, hemoglobin, enzymes
- nucleotides - ATP, DNA, RNA
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The storage form of glucose in plants:
STARCH
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Structural polysaccharide of intevertebrates:
CHITIN
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Most abundant carbohydrate on earth:
CELLULOSE
*humans cannot digest
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Storage form of glucose in animals:
GLYCOGEN
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When proteins are combined with fatty components they are called:
LIPOPROTEINS
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When proteins are combined with carbohydrates they are called:
GLYCOPROTEINS
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The building blocks:
Amino Acids
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Must be included in our diet:
Essential Amino Acids
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Proteins that speed the rate of chemical reactions:
Enzymes
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Sequence of Amino Acids in a protein:
Primary Structure
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Protein chains folded into a ball shaped structure:
Tertiary structure / Globular Proteins
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Components of a nucleotide:
- 1. one or more phosphate groups
- 2. five carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
- 3. nitrogenous base (C-N ring) A,C,T,G,U
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Purines
double ring structure : Adenine & Guanine
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Pyrimidines
single ring: Cytosine, Thymine (DNA only), Uracil (RNA only)
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A molecule that binds to another molecule:
LIGAND
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The ability of a protein to bind to one molecule but not to another
SPECIFICITY
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The part of a protein molecule that bind the ligand:
BINDING SITE
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The ability of a protein to alter its shape to fit more closely with that ligand:
INDUCED FIT
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An ion, such as Ca2+ or Mg2+ , that must be present in order for an enzyme to work:
COFACTOR
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Denatured:
protein whose structure is altered to the point that its activity is destroyed
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Protein structure (1O - 4O)
- 1. long sequence chain of amino acids
- 2. amino acid chain in spirals, turns, and pleated sheets (stabalized by H-bonding)
- 3. chain twisted into a ball-shaped structure (fibrous proteins, keratin, globular cells)
- 4. multiple protein ball-shaped structures formed together (hemoglobin)
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DNA vs. RNA
- DNA: double helix, deoxyribose, AGCT
- RNA: single band, ribose, AGCU
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Isoforms:
closely related proteins whos structure and function are similar but their affinities for ligands are different.
Ex. Hemoglobin
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Must bind to an enzyme and enhance its activity
allosteric activator & covalent modulator
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Should mimic the activity of a normal nervous system signal molecule
agonist
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Should block the activity of a membrane receptor protein
competitive inhibitor & antagonist
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Ions:
gains or loses one or more electrons
- Anion: gains electron (negative charge)
- Cation: loses electron (positive charge)
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Saturated:
no double bonds
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List four general functions of the cell membrane:
- physical isolation - seperates intracellular fluid inside the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid
- regulation of exchanges - controls entry of ions and nutrients, eliminates waste, and releases products from cell
- communication between the cell and its environment - contains proteins that enable the cell to recognize and respond to molecules
- structural support - proteins hold cytoskeleton, maintain cell shape, cell-cell & cell-matrix junctions stabalize the structure of tissues.
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Two primary types of bimolecules found in cell membrane:
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Inclusions
- particles of insoluble materials
- stored nutrients
- responisble for specific cell functions
- "nonmembranous organelles"
- do not have boundary membranes
- in direct contact with cytosol
Ex. ribosomes, proteasomes, vaults, protein fibers
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Organelles
- membrane bounded compartments
- play specific roles in overall function of cell
Ex. mitochondria, lysosomes
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Define Cytoskeleton.
a flexible, changeable three-demisonal scaffolding of actin microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm
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Functions of Cytoskeleton.
- cell shape - provides mechanical strength to the cell and plays a role in determining shape
- internal organization - stabilize the positions of organelles
- intracellular transport - help transport materials into the cell and within the cytoplasm
- assembly of cells into tissues - linking cells (allow transfer of info) to one another and support materials outside of the cell, provide mechanical strength to tissue
- movement - helps cells move. Cilia and flagella and special motor proteins facilitate movement
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short hairlike structures that beat to produce currents in fluid
CILIA
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a bundle of microtubules that aids in mitosis
CENTRIOLE
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digestive system of the cell; degrading or recycling components
LYSOSOME
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powerhouse of the cell where most ATP reticulum is produced
MITOCHONDRIA
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degrades long chain fatty acids and toxic foreign molecules
PEROXISOME
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What process activates the enzyme inside lysosomes?
increasing concentrations of H+ decreasing the pH (very acidic environment) and activates enzyme.
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Glands that release hormones, which enter the blood and regulate the activities of organs or systems.
ENDOCRINE
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Gap Junctions
- allow material to pass directly from cytoplasm of one cell to another
- simplest
- create cytoplasmic communication bridges between adjoining cells
- found in muscles, nerve cells, tissues
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Tight Junctions
- prevent movement of materials between cells
- cell membranes of adjacent cells partly fuse together with the help of proteins
- prevent substances from movng freely between internal and external environments
- create blood-brain barrier
- found in epithelia
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Adhesive Junctions
- allow twisting and stretching of the tissue
- attach cells to each other or to extracellular matrix
- found in skin
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Vesicle
- Membrane bound sphere
- Secretory: contain proteins that will be released from the cell
- Storage: never leave the cytoplasm (lysosomes)
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Explain how inserting cholesterol into phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane decreases membrane permeability
Cholesterol molecules which are mostly hydrophobic insert themselves between the hydrophilic heads of phospholipids. Cholesterol helps make membranes impermeable to small water-soluble molecules and keeps membranes flexible over a wide range of temperatures.
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Apoptosis
a normal event in the life of an organism. During fetal development, apoptosis removes unneeded cells
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What property of epithelial tissues might and does make them more prone to developing cancer?
many epithelia are vulnerable to damage and need to be replaced frequently. Cells undergoing frequent mitosis are more likely to develop abnormal cell division.
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study of cell structure
CYTOLOGY
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Functions of Cell membrane:
- physical isolation
- regulation of exchange with environment
- communication between cell and environment (electrically or chemically)
- structural support
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Micelle
role in digestion and absorbtion of fats in GI tract
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Liposome
larger, bilayer, hollow center with aqueous core
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Cytoplasmic protein fibers
- function in structural support and movement
- actin (microfilaments)
- intermediate - mysosin, keratin
- microtubules - centrioles, cilia, flagella
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Ribosomes
protein synthesis /transfer of proteins
- fixed to ER -> go to golgi aparatus
- free in cytoplasm -> proteins stay in cell
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Golgi Complex
- "post office"
- modification (labeling) of proteins
- packaging into secretory or storage vesicles
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The organelle that combines proteins with cotts and packages them within vesicles for secretion is
the Golgi apparatus
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Peroxisomes
- smaller than lysosomes
- degradating of long chain fatty acids
- generate hydrogen peroxide -> contain catalase
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Nucleus
- control center
- nuclear envelope
- chromatin
- one or more nucleoli
- genes
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