Therio

from the failure to breed or inseminate at the most favorable time with high quality semen.

• Egg: LH peak stimulates resumption of meiosis and ovulation
• Sperm: transport through female repro tract, reservoir in uterine tube.  Capacitation (acrosome rxn, hyperactivation).
• FERTILIZATION
• mixing of chromosomes and cell division
• Zygote enters uterus.

• AI with quality frozen semen.
• Heifers bred on heat detection, cows timed and then heat detection. Cows ovulate 10-15h after the end of estrus (12 best).  Once bleeding (metestrus), too late
• early: lower fertility but better embryo
• late: higher fertility but poorer embryo (old)

• PGF2alpha: 2 shots 2 weeks (day -28, day -14) apart to pre-synchronize cows (not heifers) and make sure they have a dominant follicle.
• GnRH: day 0, causes ovulation of a dominant follicle.  CL forms, new follicular wave in 2-3d. 
• PGF2alpha: day 7 to cause luteolysis of mature CL, estrus in 2-3d
• GnRH: day 9, ovulation in 24-32h
• Timed AI: 16h post GnRH
• doesn’t work in heifers - conception rate much lower

• Exogenous progesterone induces an artificial luteal phase, to cause neg feedback on pituitary (inhibits gonadotropin release and LH surge), blocks final maturation of dominant follicle. 
• Once source of progesterone removed, estrus in 2-5d

60% or more still open after each AI. Restart OvSynch with GnRH shot, but NO PG until after pregnancy Check!!  33d

• Tight breeding/calving season of 45-60d
• BSE for bulls every year to achieve

• pasture is very efficient
• in-hand breeding: tease mares and breed every 48h in estrus
• DVM has to predict time of ovulation and organize availability of semen
• follicles grow ~3mm/day (faster with CL/progesterone). >35 mm

• FROZEN inseminate 6h before or 6h after ovulation
• COOLED inseminate up to 2d before ovulation (1 day is better) or 6h after. 
• FRESH give ovulation agent and semen at same time (or ov the day before)
• >500 million progressively motile, morphologically normal sperm
• usu shipped extended, cooled.  PLAN TIMING INCLUDING SHIPPING (some don't deliver on weekends)
• not for thoroughbreds

Monitor via U/S for ovulation, intrauterine fluid accumulation (Manage with oxytocin, prostaglanins, uterine lavage)

• sperm can live up to 7d in female repro tract
• oocytes viable for at least 4 days after ovulation
• long proestrus and estrus
• Monitor 3x/week because more flexible. (Vaginal cytology, vaginoscopy, progesterone levels, looking for LH peak.

initial intromission followed by “tie”. Breed every 2 days until no longer receptive.

• vaginal deposition is easily performed
• fresh, cooled: breed on days 3 and 5  OR   4 and 6 post LH peak
• Frozen: short sperm lifespan, requires intrauterine deposition (transcervical or surgical) on days 5 and 6 post LH peak.

• Endometritis: fluid seen by ultrasound
• vaginitis: dark brown or yellowish vaginal discharge

• Take queen to Tom (ideally)
• leave undisturbed.
• Tom bites back of neck. A few seconds to a few minutes.
• Jump apart, groom, repeat
• one time only induces ovulation in about half of females

• 45d breeding period, multi-sire pasture breeding with fertile rams. We can’t really tell when they’re in heat.
• Ram: Ewe (1:15-50)
• FLushing: increase plane of nutrition before breeding to increase ovulation rates. Only works in underfed sheep
• Use heat-detection marking harnesses (colors change 14-16d, cull those covered more than 2-3 times b/c not getting pregnant)

• Allows year-round marketing of lambs
• 5 73d breeding periods instead of 1, most ewes lamb 3 times in 2 years.

• fresh semen: collect with artificial vagina or electroejaculation, inseminate with >50 million in <0.25mL. Deposit at external os cervix through speculum (elevated hindquarters of ewe). Synchronize or spontaneous
• Frozen semen: intrauterine insemination required. Guelph (pull cervix to align folds, inseminate with gun. Laborious and time consuming, 70%) vs laparoscopic (extensive specialized equipment, 75%).

• Heat detection via harness.  Heat at 9am, breed at 3pm.  Heat at 4pm, breed at 8am. 
• Intravaginal progesterone, inseminate 54-60h after withdrawal.  55-60%

• Pasture: 1 buck to 40-60 does per season.
• Hand mating:  more common, check for heat 2x/day, breed 12-24h after estrus onset.
• Synchonization possible but no approved drugs
• Fresh semen like sheep in os cervix, vaginal
• frozen semen intrauterine through cervix, easier to penetrate than in sheep

• bred by heat detection and natural mating or AI
• commercial semen can be stored at room temp for 5d.  Breed q24h.  
• Vets aren’t involved. 
• Restrain sow with pressure on loin, pipette in cervix, inseminate into uterus - screw in (lefty-tighty, righty-loosy, several minutes, slow and easy). At least 100mL because huge uterus.

• behavior - female will cush when male approaches. She’ll spit if pregnant or not in estrus yet.
• take female to male pen
• copulation >15m
• breed 1-3x on successive days
• INDUCED ovulators. Expose to male again in 1-2wks to confirm ovulation

• Breed the donor then flush the uterus, transfer to recipient uterus. 
• So you can keep using mom and get more embryos.
• Max offspring born per year, and can wash embryo to get rid of disease
• usu bovine, equine, sm ruminant. 
• Donor must be able to become pregnant. Transcervical or surgical into uterine tubes or uterus.

• oocytes harvested from follicles and fertilized in vitro. 
• IVF overcomes female infertility.  ICSI (intra—cytoplasmic sperm injection) overcomes male infertility
• first maturation phase, then fertilization phase (intracytoplasmic sperm injection), then embryo culture

• “Dolly”
• identical genetic makeup with different mitochondrial genome
• Isolate cell from donor
• take oocytes from different donor and remove nucleus
• put one donor cell next to enucleated oocyte
• supply electrical pulse to fuse cells
• Lots of placental and fetal defects, and won’t be exactly the same.

• cat: prostate, bulbourethral gland
• dog: prostate
• Stallion: ALL!  Ampulla, prostate, vesicular gland, bulbourethral gland
• bull: ALL! Ampulla, prostate, vesicular gland, bulbourethral gland
• Ram and goat: ALL!  Ampulla, prostate, vesicular gland, bulbourethral gland
• Boar: prostate, vesicular gland, bulbourethral gland
• Camelid: Prostate, bulbourethral gland
• Ampulla ONLY in all 4 (dogs have a microscopic one), everyone has a prostate. most have a bulbourethral. Cats = camelids.

• fibroelastic: ruminant, camelids, boar
• vascular: stallion, cat, dog

inability to extend penis - can't get out of prepuce

inability to retract penis - can't get back INTO prepuce

inability to detumesce the penis (blood flow problem)

persistent frenulum until 3y, testosterone dependent.  Can't extend until that age

• persistent frenulum - can't cover normally
• urolithiasis
• erectile dysfunction: corpus spongiosum shunts
• Trauma from breeding, bite wounds. 
• preputial diverticulum just caudodorsal to prepuce opening - can get infected and sore.  Remove

• Pendulous prepuce leads to prepucial prolapse then preputial stenosis/cicatrix causing phimosis or paraphimosis (dep on inside or outside once gets inflamed).  Tx with sx resection or sling/bandage.
• broken penis/penile hematoma: cow falls down, bull is stuck inside, tubica albuginea tear.  Sx if RECENT within 5-10d.  Sexual rest will recover 50% - ISOLATE COMPLETELY for 60-90d.
• Hair rings from mounting - discomfort, aren't servicing cows, swelling.  Grasp with gauze and remove hair.
• balanoprostitis: IBR = bovine Herpes.
• ventral/rainbow deviation or corkscrew/spiral deviation: Corkscrew develops with age, can be sx corrected. prevents intromission.  
• persistent frenulum: should separate by 8-11mo. Heritable but still breed. Ligate, resect. Rest 2wks
• Fibropapillomas: warts (=most common neoplasm). Autogenous vax, remove.

• penile hematoma
• urolithiasis/blockage: Ca apatite and phosphate-based calculi.  High grain, low roughage diet helps. Block vermiform appendage (resect)
• balanoposthitis/pizzle rot: corynebacterium renale or mycoplasma or virus. Usu in castrated. Diets high in protein = alkaline urine - DON'T

• coital exhanthema: herpes III STD, vesicular lesions, painful, transmitted. Self-limiting, 2 weeks, don't want to breed because ow. No effect on preg but scar. 
• hemospermia: make sure not a vaginal laceration (maiden mare has hymen). Penis drips after bleeding. Trauma, vs urethral lesions vs accessory sex gland disease (vesicular). Urethroscopy after collections. Sexual rest for 3wks to 3mo (+ abx)
• urospermia: usu chronic due to detrusor sphincter dysynergia (DSD). Occasionally due to resp probs. Train to urinate first (scent marking, fresh bedding in stall, furosemide and food reward).
• Trauma: support tissue, pressure wrap, NSAIDs, hydrotherapy, exercise, sometimes surgical drainage. Can use compression therapy for acute injuries - elastic vs IV squeeze bags. Chronic may need amputation
• Neoplasia: SCC esp in light skinned. Also prepuce - depigment.  Can treat (5FU, cryo, radiation) Melanoma, always malignant. debulk, vaccinate
• parasitic habronemiasis: parasitic infection of habronema or drashia larvae. Ivermectin!
• Beans: can be huge and cause ulcers, clean yearly.

• trauma: os penis!  Licking - self-inflicted. semen collection, fights. 
• Hypospadia: urethral opening on ventrum of penis rather than at end.  Developmental. Sx.
• urethral prolapse: intermittant bleeding, red "pea" on tip of penis, increased urination.  Sx replace or removal, prevent masturbation. 
• urethral prolapse with hypospadia: same but on ventrum of penis
• paraphimosis: prepuce can fold inside. Sexual excitement, neuro, fracture of os penis, constriction by hair ring or scar, swelling due to trauma, neoplasia or idiopathic. If recent, clean, lube, replace. May need sx.
• TVT: grows within 60d after transfer, exudate (serosanguinous to purulent), "cauliflower-like" lesions.

• penile spines indicate testosterone, can tell if castrated. 
• Hair rings
• 20% have os penis

• Rectal exam straight into scrotal sac (trauma) or indirect through inguinal ring (wide inguinal rings)
• common in premature foals.  Colic, sx

• hydrocele: excess fluid between parietal and vaginal tunics of the tunica vaginalis.  Non-inflammatory, usually acquired, in breeds (Spanish, Andalusian), more common in hot. Plummets ejaculatory quality. 
• Hematocele: trauma. Extension of hemoperitoneum. Evacuate the vaginal cavity and suture tunica albuginea. Orchidectomy likely indicated. Detrimental to spermatogenesis

• esp in stallions (standardbreds). 
• dx: location of epididymis.  
• Dynamic rotation of testis in some stallions, considered "unsound" but incidental. 
• Torsion causes vascular compromise, acute pain, colic-like signs, infarction of the testis.  Requires sx.

• Testis failure to initiate abdominal, inguinal or scrotal passage (Agenesis is extremely rare--it's in there)
• <5% in most species. Most common in horses or dogs
• unilateral vs bilateral.  
• Polygenetic recessive. 
• dx: palpation, look for scars. US better than palpation
• gelding vs cryptorchid: check testosterone, testosterone stim, anti-mullerian hormone. in cats, check for penile spines. Behavior can't tell.
• Increased risk of neoplasia, behavioral issues. Thermoreg will prob cause sterility.

• usu bulls, can be in any species. Autosomal recessive, incomplete penetrance. Daughters may have ovarian hypoplasia.
• Fertility has never been normal.

• very prevalent.  Thermal, infectious and toxic injuries.  
• Fertility WAS normal.
• gets squishy, then small and hard
• Stallion idiopathic testicular degeneration: acquired, small, soft testis. Not sure why  Poor sperm cell morphology and round cells, declining fertility. May get worse.

• Traumatic or infectious (brucella in dogs)
• tx with abx
• hemi-orchidectomy

• Interstitial (Leydig) cell tumor, Sertoli cell tumor, Seminoma, tertoma. Sertoli and Seminoma more likely in abdominal testes
• Macroscopic appearance pretty diagnostic. 
• Metastasis is rare. Unilateral or bilateral, multiple or single, more than one type can occur at the same time. 
• OR contralateral atrophy can happen from hormone secreting tumors or thermoregulation
• Interstitial (Leydig) Cell tumor: low malignancy, paraneoplastic syndrome. Retained testes and neoplastic testis. Slower growing, smaller and less often diagnosed.  
• Sertoli Cell tumor: most common hormone secreting tumor (paraneoplastic). Rare metastasis. ESTROGEN - male dogs = nipple enlargement. Prepucial smear squamous, like an estrus smear.
• dogs: all same prevalence
• Stallions: teratoma (abdominal testes), Seminoma (adult scrotal testes), Sertoli cell tumor (rare), interstitial cell tumor (rare)
• Bulls: uncommon. Interstitial cell tumors (older bulls)
• Rare in cats, sheep. VERY rare in goats, pigs.

Varicose veins of the pampiniform plexus. Most common in sheep, little effect of fertility.

• MCT in dogs (most common)
• LSA and Sarcoids in horses

• Drug reactions
• Inguinal hernia: Drop into scrotum on rectal or through inguinal rings. Often in premature foals. Colic, sx.
• Neoplasm: LSA and sarcoids

• older bulls because pendulous scrotum
• horses
• causes issues in thermoregulation and therefore spermatogenesis

• aka vesiculitis, seminal vesiculitis
• Trueperella pyogenes
• dx: leukospermia (diff-quik of ejaculate), rectal palpation, U/S

• Blockage in ampulla from accumulation of senescent sperm (idiopathic).  
• Unilateral is intermittant ejaculations of one side.  Bilateral is intermittant or complete obstruction. 
• dx: palpation and US (thickening and/or enlarged diameter)
• tx: oxytocin
• prevention: put on regular collection/mating schedule

• adenocarcinoma or TCC of prostatic urethra
• Rare! Usu dx late, MST 2mo
• Castration is not protective
• palpable prostate in castrated male is a bad sign
• Palpation: irregular asymmetric, enlarged, painful
• Rads and U/S show prostatomegaly, prostatic mineralization (**).  
• Tx: palliative.

• neutered dogs only get cancer (though could have infection/abscess)
• In mature dogs, start with BPH (prone to bacterial infection)
• dx: digital palpation, US, rads, urinalysis
• test: third fraction of ejaculate, urine, U/S guided aspirate vs blind aspirate, prostatic "wash", Bx (US vs sx). Rads and US
• signs: blood in urine, on prepuce, in semen, tenesmus, dysuria, locomotion problems, abdominal pain, systemic disease
• tx: castration! Cures all but abscess, tumor and maybe cyst. Abx (TMS, fluoroquinolones, chloramphenicol)

• +/- GnRH
• NEVER testosterone
• Libido is genetically determined (season, age, nutrition may be a factor) and affected by physical (lame, eye sight)
• steroids cause poor sperm quality, so don't administer or stress!

• frequently learned, sometimes genetic or frustration. (neg reinforcement, loss of interest, ejaculatory failure)
• Patient retraining with cooperative mare (respond in <3min usu).
• Diazepam to help with focus, imipramine to lower ejaculatory threshold. 
• Older stallions with health issues may partially ejaculate (4 pulses instead of 7)
• Can do ex-copula ejaculation (imipramine and xylazine) if can't cover naturally.
• Eliminate pain/discomfort, give progesterone (NOT TESTOSTERONE)

• suggests female has been bred and there is an infertility problem (dif from BSE).  Goal is to ID the problem
• Obtain thorough history: particularly repro like cycles, parity, etc. Diet, vax, travel. 
• complete PE: BCS, signs of infectious
• PE of repro tract: palpation and U/S, speculum and cervical palpation
• Diagnostic tests: R/O infectious, cytology and culture of uterus +/- bx, hysteroscopy
• monitor repro function

diestrus.  Unless it's a dog.

• indications: prepurchase, to investigate existing problems, post-injury, to book appropriate number of females.  
• Guidelines set by SFT to assess POTENTIAL fertility
• classifications: satisfactory, questionable, unsatisfactory
• Requirements: produce normal semen, be able to achieve erection and coitus, have normal libido, be free of infectious and genetic disease

• indications: prepurchase, investigating existing probs, post-injury, or to book a number for mares. 
• Satisfactory, questionable, unsatisfactory. 
• assesses potential fertility. 
• advantages
• required to produce normal semen, capable of erection and coitus, normal libido, free of infectious and genetic dz
• health hx, repro hx, ID, PE (vision, limbs, heart/lung, TEETH), genital exam, internal genitalia, semen analysis, libido and mating ability, special tests like BRUCELLA etc.

• Artificial vagina, electroejaculation, digital massage, chemical
• Pigs: "gloved hand technique", filter due to lots of gel (lg volume).  Boar mounts dummy
• dogs: digital stimulation in presence of estrous bitch. 3 fractions: presperm (urethral), sperm-rich, post-sperm (prostatic)
• cats: difficult to collect. Electro under GA or specially constructed artificial vagina. Also aspirate semen from queens.  Chemical (dexmedetomidine). 
• Camelids: difficult. Electro usu not satisfactory. AV and dummy, or vaginal aspiration of females. 
• Ruminants: AV with dummy or female, electro. Semen is concentrated and small volume.
• equine: Tease (evaluate for lesions), culture, wash, retease, mount, AV. There is a gel fraction.  Missouri, Colorado, Nishikawa models of AV.

• protect semen from sudden temp change, heat and cold, water, contamination and direct sunlight
• macroscopic: volume (species and method specific), odor, pH, color (blood, urine, dirt, pigment), concentration (hemocytometer)
• microscopic: motility (mass/gross in ruminants, 0-5, waves, 5 is most), individual sperm motility (dilute ruminant - total (mvmt) and progressive motility), morphology

• Bull: 5mL, No fractions, 125bil sperm, >70% motile, >75% normal morphology
• Ram: 1mL, no fractions, 2000bil sperm, >90% motile, >85% normal
• Buck: 0.5mL, 2zil, 70% motile, 80% normal
• Camelid: 3mL, no fractions, 300mil sperm, >30% motility, >50% normal
• Stallion: 60mL, fractions, 120bil sperm, NO MIN FOR MOTILITY OR MORPHOLOGY.  Want 1 bil prog motile, morpho normal in the second of 2 ejaculates 1 hr apart. 
• Boar: 250mL, yes fractions, 100bil sperm, >60% motile, >80% normal
• Dog: 10mL, yes fractions, 125bil sperm, >80% motile, >80% normal
• cat: 0.2mL, no fractions, 60bil sperm, >75% motile, >70% normal

• physiological and behavioral changes between the start of consecutive estrus. 
• goal: synchronize development of follicle to ovulate a fertile oocyte, prepare uterus to receive and time mating with ovulation.

• time of first estrus/ovulation.
• approproach can be seen in developing follicular waves to an increasingly closer state to ovulation
• pre-puberty, the hypothalamus (tonic GnRH center) is VERY sensitive to estradiol (neg feedback from developing follicles, reduced GnRH and LH secretion
• Once ovulation occurs, subsequent cycles are normal

• after seasonal anestrus or entering seasonal anestrus
• after parturition/lactational anestrus
• similar to puberty

• polyestrous: return to estrus after diestrus.  Seasonally (mare, queen, ewe, doe) vs non-seasonal (cow, alpaca, pig)
• monestrus: anestrus after diestrus (once a year for wolf, fox, bear vs 6-8mo in a bitch)

• spontaneous: ovulation with every cycle, most species
• induced: ovulation triggered by mating (these species are GREAT at repro - queen, alpaca, rabbit)

• proestrus: FSH increases, follicular growth begins, estradiol secretion
• estrus: receptive. Estradiol maximal or increasing, LH peak
• metestrus: transition from estrogen to progesterone dominance
• diestrus: functional CL, dominated by progesterone
• anestrus: no follicular or luteal activity

• estrus mucus (metestrus bleeding)
• other cows mounting
• increased activity, vocalizing, friendly, decreased rumination, stand to be mounted
• soft cervix, toned and edematous uterus on palpation
• large follicle and no CL on U/S (always present in metestrus, diestrus)
• decreased progesterone
• pedometer (increased mvmt), mounting device/tail paint

• vulva conformation, discharge
• Tease stallions, "wink", squeal, urinate
• cervix soft on palpation. Edematous, "wilted rose"
• uterus soft on palpation and edematous on U/S
• large follicle and no CL (present in diestrus)
• decreased progesterone (high in diestrus)

• stands for mating (ONLY time)
• Post-bloody discharge (proestrus), vulva softens and swells
• Cytology >90% superficial cells
• Follicles/CL present - only one!
• increased progesterone (also in diestrus).  Everyone else is decreased!

• will stand for mating, crouching, lordosis, vocalize, restless, affectionate (estrus, proestrus)
• cytology 40-60% superficial cells
• follicles
• increased estrogen. High progesterone is diestrus.

• cush when males orgle (spit off in diestrus)
• moist, external os protrudes, is open
• edema in uterus, high tone
• no CL present (present in diestrus)
• decreased progesterone (high in diestrus)

• seek out makes, rapid tail mvmt, increased bleating and urination
• vulva swollen, thick cloudy mucus, external os relaxed
• Large follicle, no CL
• decreased progesterone

• seek out rams, stand to be mounted
• vulvar swelling, thin mucus
• large follicle, No CL
• decreased progesterone

• lordosis during back pressure, mounts pen-mates, pricks ears, seeks boar
• swollen pink vulva, slight mucus discharge
• decreased progesterone

external evaluation of the vulva, vaginoscopy, hysteroscopy, ultrasound, palpation

Behavior, external signs, internal signs (cytology, palpation, US, lab tests)

• agenesis, unilateral or bilateral
• duplication, from ovarian fragmentation
• developmental: sex reversal
• developmental: freemartin
• cystic remnants of developmental structures, as single cysts or chains

• XX sex reversal: should be female but has male phenotype. No germ cells (sterile). Common in polled goats and cocker spaniels
• XY sex reversal: mutation or failure of Y genes to activate. Sterile, wide range of phenotypes
• androgen insensitivity: production of androgens normal but receptors lacking

• masculination of freemartin female, mainly in cattle (rare in sm ruminant), caused by co-twin with male
• anastomosis of branches of umbilical arteries (chimera)
• hypoplastic gonads (usu ovotestes), hypoplastic uterus, with no/minimal connection to vagina, short vagina, enlarged clitoris, prominent hair on vulva, seminal vesicular glands.

• epoophoron, cyst at cranial edge of ovary (opposite uterus) from connection to mesonephric duct
• Paraoophoron - on uterus end, from connection to mesonephric duct
• fimbrial cyst: very common in horses, most mares have them. Only a prob if the block the opening.  From paramesonephric duct
• mesonephric duct cyst - on ovaduct
• 

• germ cell tumor: dysgerminoma, teratoma
• stromal tumor: granulosa tumor/sex cord-stromal tumor
• epithelial tumor: papillary adenoma, adenocarcenoma, cystic adenoma, papillary cystadenoma
• non-gonadal tumor: LSA, leiomyoma/sarcoma, HSA

• rare
• dysgerminoma: similar to primordial germ cells. Male/testicular homolog is seminoma (not rare at all)
• teratoma: germ cells differentiate to tissues in two or more germinal layers lineages (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm).  Find odd parts like teeth, hair, bone in teratomas.

• aka sex cord-stromal tumors (because granulosa cells arise from sex cords?)
• considered together because often granulosa cells and theca cells in same tumor
• "granulosa cell tumor" is mixed of these two anyway (Granulosa-Theca cell tumor).

• Very rare in domestic animals except the bitch
• surface epithelium: papillary adenoma or rarely metastatic papillary adenocarcinoma
• subsurface epithelial structure: cystic adenoma
• together, papillary cystadenoma

• lymphosarcoma: usu in corpus luteum of cattle with systemic lymphoma
• leiomyoma/leiomyosarcoma: smooth muscle tumor, usu not clinical
• hemangiosarcoma: dogs

• postpartum vs cystic ovarian follicles/luteinized cyst: stops estradiol surge from follicle from causing GnRH surge, so no LH and no ovulation.
• usu poor metabolic status
• hypersensitivity to estrogen negative feedback on hypothalamic-pituitary axis
• cystic ovarian disease is a different perturbation of hypothalamic-pituitary axis
• Anovulatory conditions: 
• 1. follicular growth to emergence but not deviation (no estradiol surge)
• 2. follicular growth to deviation but not to ovulation
• 3. follicular growth to ovulatory or larger size
• usu preovulatory sized follicle causes estradiol surge, which leads to GnRH surge causing LH surge, = ovulation. 
• Cysts: RESET hypothalamic-pituitary axis (with progesterone). Give GnRH followed by prostaglandin to luteinize, give progesterone if necessary.

• Bovine herpes virus in cattle! 
• also in uterine disease where content leaks up uterine tubes to ovary. 
• Or due to trauma from oocyte pick-up

• Persistent: follicle doesn't respond to drugs. Usu late or early in season, will go away eventually but interferes. 
• Hemorrhagic: hemorrhage and fibrin webs seen in follicle. No ovulation, variable progesterone.  Will eventually become CL. Occurs spontaneously or from exogenous prostaglandin at the wrong time. Usu more than once.

• peritoneum is trapped during ovulation, forms a cyst near ovulatory fossa, could interfere with ovulation
• considered paraneoplastic, associated with increased risk of granulosa-theca cell tumor

• "stud-like" behavior in mares
• most common ovarian tumor in mares
• often endocrine-active
• at any age (even fetus) but usu ~ 8yo
• usu unilateral, contralateral ovary inactive (due to inhibin)
• rarely metastatic. 
• dx: hormone panel (testosterone, inhibin, progesterone, and anti-mullerian hormone), US
• tx: surgical resection
• Px: good for life and fertility

• prominent blood vessels on the surface of the mare ovary
• age-related changes lead to veins being varicose
• thrombi may cause infarction
• specific to equine

• usu in 8+yo females, but can appear in young
• follicle >8mm, persistant, results in clinical signs
• single or multiple, can get quite large. Unknown etiology (estrogen exposure?)
• Most clinical signs are estrogen effects (persistent estrus, irregular estrus, bilaterally symmetric alopecia).  Tx via OHE. Could try to luteinize but rarely successful (hCG, GnRH)
• Also luteal cysts (rare, lining of luteal cells), cystic rete ovarii (dilated rete in hilus of ovary, mesonephric remnant), cystic subsurface epithelial structures (chains of cysts under ovarian epithelium)

• unilateral or bilateral on ovaries (?)
• ddx for ascites or hemoabdomen in older bitch

• inviltration of mononuclear leukocytes to ovary
• immune?  Unknown etiology
• affect fertility and cyclicity
• dx: histopath
• tx: OHE, px for fertility is poor

• iatrogenic
• signs: coming into heat despite spay (years after)
• dx: signs of estrus (with cytology), positive anti-mullerian hormone or positive progesterone test, U/S (usu caudal to kidney)
• exploratory surgery - have to check all the fat in the abdomen.
• tx: ovariectomy (again)

• causes prolonged estrus
• ddx cystic rete ovarii and granulosa-theca cell tumor
• can try luteinizing with hCG or GnRH, or OHE

• genetically female but exhibit male or mixed phenotype, sometimes with ovotestes (sterile)
• homozygous for "polled trait related intersex syndrome" deletion on chromosome 1 (causes trait)

• common cause of infertility
• can be single, but multiple cysts has more prominent phenotype
• dx via US
• culled

• inflammation of the uterine tubes, often from uterine infection.
• shouldn't be able to feel uterine tubes on palpation

• water in the uterine tubes
• usually with hydrometra/mucometra
• shouldn't be able to feel uterine tubes.

• parts of uterus not present or not connected. 
• cattle: white heifer disease, common in white shorthorn breed. Just missing a segment. 
• uterus unicornus: when one uterine horn is missing

• dz caused by vaginal or cervical adhesions that prevent secretions from leaving uterus, causing accumulation of purulent material
• no or minimal systemic illness
• usu after a dystocia. 
• tx: resect adhesion (cut vaginal septum or wedge of cervix), prevent re-adhesions with steroid cream (?).  Re-checks are irritating and can cause re-adhesion
• px: good for life, poor for fertility

• CL-dependent
• EMERGENCY
• predisposing: estrogen + progesterone, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, opportunistic pathogen (e coli, staph aureus, strep, pseudomonas, proteus, etc) can all cause
• signs: vary. Heat within 2 months, lethargy/depression, decreased appetite, fever, abnormal vulvar discharge, PUPD (endotoxin), acute abdomen. 
• dx: hx/MDB, imaging, purulent vulva discharge culture/cytology
• tx: OHE!  Abx, supportive care.
• Medical: ONLY in special conditions (young, O desperately wants to breed, open pyo in stable condition).  Abx, PGF2alpha, supportive care. Monitor CBC, P4, US. 
• Cystic endometrial hyperplasia is permanent, so will come again quickly (shortened diestrus), and WILL end up with another pyo.

• common in canine, feline, porcine
• usu age-related due to multiple exposure to progesterone
• simultaneous exposure to estrogen appears to exacerbate CEH formation
• predisposes to pyo, decreases fertility
• Bubbles all over endometrial lining.

• presence of endometrial glands and stroma between muscles of myometrium, sometimes with segmental aplasia in cows
• makes uterus weaker and prone to rupture

usu canine and feline, can be very large in lumen of uterus. Looks like a tumor.

• thin-walled cystic structures on the serosal (broad ligament) surface of the uterus
• arise from surface epithelial indentations that are pinched off
• seen mostly in older multiparous bitches, sometimes ruminants. 
• incidental

• not glandular, usu in older mares, associated with lymphatics
• seen on US
• can inhibit embryo migration if very large.  If occludes uterine lumen, CL may not acknowledge pregnancy (block embryo migration, need 2/3)
• removed by laser.

• mare and bitch mostly, occurs in all species.
• normal uterine inflammatory response to breeding, to clear excess sperm and debris. Should clear in 48h. 
• Mare tx: uterine lavage, ecbolic drugs, intrauterine infusion
• bitch tx: systemic abx

• chronic endometritis - bacterial and/or fungal
• look for predisposing factors like poor perineal conformation. 
• C/S. 
• bacterial: abx, physical lavage with fluids.  Biofilm!
• Fungal: antifungal, physical lavage. Biofilm!

• causes infertility
• dx via bx
• bacterial infection

• from chorionic girdle cells of equine trophoblast
• cells invade into mare uterus and secrete equine chorionic gonadotrophin.  Last ~70d
• Can be retained and functional (produce eCG) if immune system doesn't stop them. 
• Mares luteinize the follicles and can have diestrus ovulations on consecutive estrous cycles
• dx: testing circulating eCG or hysteroscopy
• tx: not rewarding. Laser ineffective. Will go away in months to years

• double cervical os: cervix opens to each horn separately. Which do you inseminate?
• uterus didelphus: complete division of uterus and cervix
• imperforate hymen: no opening in hymen, secretions can't get out and semen can't get in.

• associated with estrogen exposure. Almost always intact bitches during proestrus and estrus (or exposure to exogenous progesterone like O's cream)
• may occur in dystocia, tenesmus or forced extraction during a tie
• dx: PE showing protrusion of vaginal muscosa from vulva. Confirm estrus/proestrus
• tx: spay. Self-limiting, resolves when bitch enters diestrus.  Sx removal if does not resolve after spay
• VERY common in bovine. No real tx. Maybe try not to breed?  Can fix sx or pexy cervix, but $$$

• types: puppy vaginitis, adult onset vaginitis, anatomic abnormalities, misc (canine herpes, FB, neoplasia, immune suppression, abx etc)
• signs: purulent/mucopurulent vaginal d/c, irritation/licking of perineum
• increased risk with: vaginal septum, vaginal stenosis, hooded vulva
• dx: vaginal cytology, vaginoscopy, UA and culture. 
• tx: ID and tx underlying. Systemic abx help with clinical signs but don't get rid of it. Incontinence tx due to irritation.  Surgery only if SEVERE, won't help otherwise.
• Puppy vaginitis is self-limiting, no tx or just topical. Allow one cycle before spay, as spay makes it take longer to get over.

remnant of mesonephric duct.  Usu benign, incidental.  Could be large or uncomfortable

• normally 200-240d, faster in crossbred. Delayed by heat stress
• Boar exposure: 5-alpha-androsteinedione from submaxillary salivary glands. start at 150-160d old for 10-15mins/day to hasten by 30-60d. 
• Stress: transportation or regrouping around 160d, 25-35% will be in estrus in a week. Best combined with boar exposure
• housing: 6-12 gilts together help achieve by 180d. Delayed if <3 or >30
• PG600: 400 IU of equine chorionic gonadotropic + 200 IU of hCG induces follicular growth, estrus and ovulation after 185lbs/5.5mo. 90% within 4-6d. Can try 2nd shot in 3 weeks, 50% more. Better litters if first estrus after induction is skipped.

• want Jan1 born foals, so breed Feb15 (when mares aren't cycling)
• can use light, melatonin, dopamine, prolactin, GnRH, FSH, LH
• Light: extend photoperiod (16h of 10-candle light from Dec1) or 1h artificial light 10h after dark. Or equilume mask
• Dopamine antagonist: sulpride injectable (NOT PO)
• Progesterone: in oil, start when follicles 30mm
• GnRH analog: low dose deslorelin or histrelin

• Photoperiod: need it darker. Light-tight barn on long days, give 20h light in winter and 14h in summer, or 20h in Dec then 8h in Feb, estrus in 6-8wks. 
• Melatonin implant: NOT LEGAL. but with light manipulation and male exposure, can cause estrus in 2-3d
• ram/buck effect: NO contact for 30-60d, then introduce teaser 14d before breeding season to cause LH surge (1st estrus in 2d, ignore, 2nd 5 days later, breed). Introduce intact male.

• diethylstilbestrol: 6-9 until proestrus, 100% proestrus and 100% preg rate
• bromocriptine: 21d, 70-100% proestrus, 83% preg. Causes vomiting. 
• cabergoline: 30d max, 80-100 (or lower) proestrus, 86-93 preg rate. 
• GnRH: variable success

• need 13-150d after estrus for uterine involution/repair. 
• Mibolerone (steroid): up to 6mo to prevent estrus (and improve hair coat)
• side effects: clitoral hypertrophy, musky odor, inter-dog aggression, vaginal discharge, liver damage (check frequently)
• start 1mo before expected heat. Estrus variable after stopping.

• LH surge, caused by GnRH surge, caused by estrogen positive feedback.  
• hCG mimics LH effect on follicle
• GnRH receptors respond to GnRH analogs, pituitary secretes LH. 
• Neither of these works in bitches - can luteinize but don't necessarily cause ovulation
• mares need longer acting drugs - prolonged exposure to LH
• rest ovulate within 2d

• FSH surge, which can be caused by giving FSH or GnRH analog: as long as no suppression from dominant follicle
• removing dominant follicle: U/S guided needle aspiration, bovine
• ovulation of dominant follicle: hCG or GnRH, bovine
• removing inhibition of FSH by pituitary: horses usu, inhibit FSH with progesterone and estradiol, then wait for new follicle wave to begin

• induced by prostaglandins (broken down in lungs, esp ruminants). Effects include vomiting (d/c), colic/sweating (h), shock (d)
• bovine: single large dose
• equine: single small dose
• canine: small 2-3x/d for several days to reduce adverse
• feline: multiple doses, less but longer side effects
• small ruminant: single dose, resistant
• swine: only effective in last days of diestrus
• alpaca: extremely sensitive, deaths reported. Single dose

• supplement progesterone or preserve CL to prevent estrus behavior and prevent ovulation to synch estrus
• mare: marbles (into uterus just after ovulation), delays return to estrus for 3mo in 40%. OR Progestins like altrenogest. Works well but wear gloves!

• Release of luteotropin (prostaglandin)
• prevention of luteolysis: block luteolysin secretion, block delivery, alter metabolism or alter receptors
• both!

interferon tau (IFN-tau) from trophoblast inhibits oxytocin receptor synthesis by endometrial cells so they can’t respond to oxytocin from CL to produce PGF2alpha

• conceptus produces E2
• PGF2alpha secreted into uterine lumen instead of into blood so the ovary/CL doesn’t get it. 
• 2 conceptus per horn

• conceptus migrates, needs 3/4 of uterus to deliver signal - migrates around this area.  
•         If <3/4 available, embryo doesn’t survive.
• unknown signal (“holy grail”). 
• Embryo sends a signal (PG E2) once it’s fertilized and ready. Opens uterine tubes and goes into uterus.  THERE IS AN EMBRYO SOMEWHERE.

• Almost all pregnancies in LEFT horn
• PGF2alpha synthesis or release inhibited
• via unknown mechanism

• unknown!
• Canine: in ~60d will either have puppies or go into diestrus (preg = dies). 
• Feline: 60d pregnant, 45d in diestrus

• Estrogen: prime uterus for parturition (preg test or preg monitoring)
• equine chorionic gonadotropin: produced by chorionic girdle, act as LH to produce CL
• hCG: luteotrophic to produce CL
• placental lactogens: mammary development
• relaxin: SA and equine placenta, can be used as preg test
• progestogens: support preg in some species that are not CL dependent. Inhibit myometrial contractions

• pregnancy maintenance
• Removing the source will terminate pregnancy
• Comes from CL in some species
• steroids +/- PG in non-CL dependent species
• Goats, llama, pig, dog, cat have no placental P4 (sheep, cow and horse do), only horse doesn’t have CL P4 throughout pregnancy.

• Failure to return to estrus
• palpation per rectum in larger sows (>30d)
• transabdominal US: 20-30d, uterus is fluid-filled. Should have at least 2 conceptus per horn to maintain maternal recognition

• Ewes bred are marked by ram
• US is best - too small for transrectal palpation but can do transrectal US or transabdominal US (>45-90d)
• can detect twins and triplets (or quad).  
• Hydrometra gives false positive.  
• Rads >90d

• Common in pets, not bred or out of season. 
• Elevated serum P4, accumulation of fluid in uterus but no caruncles (US).
• Dx: Estrone sulphate test >50d
• Tx: 5-10mg dinoprost or 125-250mcg cloprostenol because CL dependent - lyses CL and allows fluid evacuation and return to cyclicity

• Transrectal palpation: membrane slip, amniotic vesicle/sac
• Can also feel fetus later, or cotyledons (>2 = not ovaries)
• enlarged fluid-filled ipsilateral horn of CL (>30d, 45 best)
• slip or palpation of chorioallantoic membrane (>30d)
• ballotment or palpation of fetus (>70d)
• palpation of placentomes (>100d)
• palpation of fremitus in the middle uterine artery (>90d)
• fetal aging based on size, measure your fingers. 
• Amnion 42d = 1 finger.  48, 52, 58, 65 is a hand. 
• Fetus 70d 1 finger, 80, 90, 100, 120d is hand
• gravid horn grows alone until 7mo, then contra enlarges
• 2mo - mouse, 3mo rat, 4mo small cat, 5mo lg cat, 6mo beagle
• transrectal US: not reliable until 25d, most accurate >30d. Sexing 60-80d.

• Progesterone: does not distinguish diestrus vs pregnancy 
• Pregnancy-specific Protein-B (PSPB): produced in placenta of ruminants. ELISA/IDEXX.
• Goats 26d, sheep 22d, cows 30d (or any time >90d pre-calving).
• 97% accurate, results in 48h, $7.50/test in small, $2.25 in cow.

• NOT: teasing, membrane slip, serum P4
• 1. transrectal palpations: long tight cervix and good uterine tone at day 20 (not definitive esp in older, also twins screw this up)
• 2 transrectal palp: Palpable bulge at base of pregnant horn over developing conceptus at d30-40.  Harder in those quickly rebred.
• 3. transrectal ultrasound: method of choice. Embryonic vesicle visible d11, check for twins by 15d post-ovulation. Embryo at d22 and HB at 25d. 35d for early death.  
• Endocrine tests: 
• 4: eCG good b/c cups must be present, but false positives if embryo dies.  
• 5: Estrone sulfate good from day 90 on. 
• May not ovulate at breeding date, so recheck - times may be off.

• usu due to asynchronous ovulation, may be several days apart in age
• hard to detect before day 15, one is younger/smaller so hard to find, and often fail to scan whole uterus once find one preg.
• more common with fertility drugs
• Usu one will die anyway.

• Look for genital tubercle on US.  Closer to umbilicus is male, closer to tail is female.  
• 55-63d in equine
• 60-80d in bovine

• Behavioral: spit at male 15d post-breeding
• high P4: not specific
• Transrectal palpation: >40d
• U/S: transrectal >12-16d after mating, heartbeat in 24-25d.
• U/S: Transabdominal - left flank 40-80d, right flank >80d.

longer in bitches carrying a small litter or if pups are dead. 65d from LH peak (ovulation 2d later), or 57d after cytological diestrus

• Transabdominal palpation: 3.5-4.5wks
• transabdominal US: most accurate at > 20d, usu performed at 25-58d post LH peak. NOT for counting embryos, but can give whelping date with measurements
• Rads: >45d for mineralization of skull, spine. Most accurate for fetal count.
• hormonal: Relaxin produced by placenta. ELISA 21d, recheck in 7-10d. Positive even after preg LOSS.
• NEED BREEDING RECORDS.

• often self-reduce, esp in same horn. 
• Manually reduce: while still mobile, use probe to crush. Mobile until ~17d.
• Hard to get one and not the other once they’re fixed next to each other. MUST be 4mm apart to avoid damage. Once you start working on one, keep working until it’s completely reduced. Pick whichever one you can most easily crush. 
• Ultrasound-guided allocentesis: best before day 35, go into uterus and aspirate allantoic fluid.
• Transabdominal cardiac puncture: inject a bunch of procaine penicillin into fetus between day 115-130. TRY to inject the small one, but get the one you can get. Trans-abdominal, jab in very fast. 
• Craniocervical dislocation: 60-110d. Transrectal vs surgical/flank. Better success than cardiac puncture. Fetus can stay alive for weeks with HB.

• Fetal death and absorption of fluids, retention of CL and fetus, closed tight cervix.  STERILE
• sporadic in cows (give PGF2alpha)
• rare in mares (from twinning)
• frequent in sows
• litter-bearing species (even cows and horses) can have WITH normal fetuses. 
• can be from abortion diseases (BVD), genetic factors (chromosomal abnormalities in fetus), induction of abortion
• signs: anestrus, hard-ish rectal mass, absense of parturition because fetus doesn’t produce ACTH or cortisol. 
• Tx: PGF2alpha to expel fetus, two doses often required. 
• Px: good.

• mummification: sterile, no systemic illness, dry fetus, tx with PGF2alpha. Px good
• maceration: septic, systemic illness, emphysematous or bones, PGF2alpha or estrogen with bone removal, px is poor

• decomp of soft tissues and placenta - SEPTIC ENVIRONMENT. Leaves bones.  Relaxation of cervix allowed bacterial invasion with retained CL.  Causes emphysema in 24-48h, maceration in 4d. 
• Signs: foul uterine discharge, fever, anorexia, decreased milk production. Distended swollen crepitous fetus. Once macerated, thick uterine wall, bones embedded
• tx for emphysematous: PGF2alpha to induce luteolysis, fetal extraction if cervix open, treat metritis
• tx for macerated: estrogen to dilate cervix, manual bone extraction (LUBE), surgical removal, slaughter (poor px).

• more in cows, then horses, rare in SA
• excessive accumulation of placental fluids.  Hydroallantois > hydroamnion.  
• Normally amniotic space = 3-5L, allantoic space: 8-15L.
• dx: transrectal palpation, transrectal/transabdominal US
• Tx: Euthanasia/salvage!  Or induce parturition (watch for hypovolemia). Slow drainage in valuable animals.

• hydroallantois: placental, more common, rapid round abdomen, nonpalpable fetus, watery/clear fluid, abnormal placenta, normal fetus, poor px
• hydroamnion: fetal, less common, slow pear-like, palpable fetus, viscous fluid, normal placenta, abnormal fetus, good px for cow.

• accumulation of allantoic fluid >8-15L, can be 120-220L (cows > Horses, SA rare)
• last 3 mo of pregnancy, RAPID abdominal enlargement AROUND amnion/fetus
• signs: anorexia, weakness, reluctance to move, dyspnea, recumbency.
• Potential for rupture of body wall or prepubic tendon
• can be associated with decreased number of placentomes or adventitious placentation (all over the place and flat).
• More common than hydroamnion (which is slow accumulation, abdomen is pear-shaped, fetus can be palpated. Fluid viscous, fetus abnormal). 
• Feels round, fetus not palpable, fluid watery/clear. Placenta is abnormal but fetus normal. 
• Px: poor.

• Predisposing and causes: draft mares, hydrops, twins, uterine torsion, genetics. Often none. 
• signs: painful hot edema, bloody mammary secretion, mammary gland displaced cranially
• US for degree of muscle involvement
• serial AST/CK to show muscle damage.
• Dx: ventral wall edema? Painful to walk or palpation? Bloody mammary secretions.
• tx: Sx may or may not work.  induce parturition of fetus if mature. If not, belly wrap, restrict exercise, induce once fetus matures.
• px: embryo donors but can’t be preg again.

• ascending (most common)
• focal mucoid (nocardio form)
• diffuse (hematogenous)
• multifocal
• placentitis in 3-5% of pregnancies in thoroughbreds, causes fetal loss

• bacteria: strep equi zoo, E coli, kebsiella pneumoniae, pseudomonas aeruginosa, amycolatopsis lexingtonenesis/pretoriensis
• fungi: aspergillus, Candida
• ascending infection gets past cervix, causes inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandins, also enters umbilical cord and fetal infection
• signs: premature udder development, vulvar discharge. Maybe none. NO systemic signs.
• dx: measure distance between fetal membranes and uterus, shouldn't be too big (edema)
• tx: broad-spectrum abx, anti-inflammatories, pentoxifylline, maybe progesterone?  Trying to avoid contractions
• px: poor.  If fetus is born (not aborted, usu), will be septic!

• inherited (conformation) vs pluriparous and fat cows (in place but pops out when laying down vs high estrogen in late pregnancy vs vaginal edema vs prolapse of swollen tissues of vaginal floor vs increased abdominal pressure during recumbency
• stays out too long, drying, necrosis, straining, more prolapse. Can cause frostbite, predators. 
• signs: mild is just during recumbency.  Severe is extensive, can include bladder!!
• tx: clean, epidural (empty bladder with catheter first if involved), replace.  Vulvar retention sutures (Buhner = HUGE needle with handle, purse-string with umbilical tape. Remove before calving). In severe, can cervipexy (prepubic tendon) or vaginopexy (prepubic tendon, ischial ligaments or toggle).  Calve and cull!  Inherited.

• inadequate nutrition
• esp in cows, small ruminants and dogs
• bitches with large litters that are anorectic (negative energy balance)
• ewes and does: usu 1-3wks before parturition.  If before day 140 of gestation, higher risk of severe disease and mortality
• signs: listless, aimless, muscle twitch/temor, opisthotonos, bruxism.  Progresses to blindness, ataxia, sternal recumbency, coma, death
• tx: propylene glycol, induce parturition or abortion with dexamethasone +/- prostaglandin. Watch for fatty liver in bitches (c-section).

• VD
• bulls are asymptomatic, permanent carriers once >4yrs. 
• Survives in crypts of penile and preputial integument
• Cows: irregular return to estrus, sporadic abortion, eventually develop immunity and become carriers too
• dx: culture of smegma, fetus, vaginal/cervical mucous
• tx: eliminate bulls, vaccination

• VD
• asymptomatic in bulls
• cow: infertility, rare abortions, pyometra
• dx: preputial sample with Diamond's medium
• control: AI, use virgin bulls, NO VAX, no legal tx

• eradicated from NE USA (RB51 vaccine strain)
• "contagious abortion" or "bangs disease"
• ZOONOTIC - causes undulant fever in humans (via milk)
• moroccan leather appearance of placenta
• abortion at 5-8mo

• causes abortions (serovar - hardjo)
• infected urine, placental fluids, milk or contaminated environment/water
• abortion from 4mo to term
• dx: culture from fetal kidney
• tx: VACCINATE ANNUALLY

• "circling disease"
• ZOONOTIC
• ingestion of poorly fermented silage
• signs: fever, weight loss, endometritis, encephalitis, abortion in 3rd trimester (sporadic or abortion storm)
• control: stop feeding spoiled silage, isolate aborting cows
• tx: broad spectrum abx (milk withdrawal)

• Q fever
• zoonotic
• usu subclinical but can cause anorexia and late abortion
• risk of infection at parturition via inhalation/ingestion/direct contact with birth fluids or placenta

• abortion at any trimester, embryonic early death, stillbirth, congenital birth defects (eye, thymus, brain), arthrogryposis
• calves infected in-utero seem normal but have no immunity
• Cull carriers
• VACCINATE

• bovine herpes virus - there is also infectious pustular vaginitis (IPV)
• abortion, infertility, respiratory infections, conjunctivitis
• abortion storms usu >5mo gestation.  Red nose! and mm
• tx: VAX!

• cycles between canids and ruminants - oral or vertical
• mid-gestational abortion (4-6mo).  Pre-mature calf, birth of impaired calf, or normal calf
• brain hemorrhage, myocarditis

• oral infection. Aspergillus, candida and others
• Thick, leathery cotyledons and intercotyledonary placenta
• abortions in 3rd trimester
• head and neck lesions on fetus

• orthobunyavirus
• causes abortion
• transmitted by culcioides midges and vertical transmission (in utero)
• Europe

• Taylorella equigenitallis
• copious vaginal discharge
• carrier stallions
• culture stallion penis, urethral fossa, mare following test mating.  To detect carrier, culture clitoral sinuses and fossae.  
• REPORTABLE

• EHV 1: abortion, weak, non-viable foals, neurologic disease, resp disease. Abort 3wk-4mo, no signs. STORM abortions. Don't mix pregnant, vax (killed or MLV to prevent nasal shedding/viremia, doesn't prevent abortion)
• EHV 4: resp disease
• EHV 3: vuvlar/penile lesions, "coital exanthema", heal with apigmented, contracted scars

• REPORTABLE
• occasional epidemic abortion
• abort 7-10d PI (mid-late preg)
• naive mares bred to + stallions or semen will seroconvert
• signs: mild resp disease, flu-like or VD. limb edema or urticaria?

• >7 twists
• torsion
• wraps around limb
• dilated vessels and urachus, distended bladder.
• Abortion. 
• Long cord is a risk?

• pregnancy in BODY of uterus, not in horns.
• Causes placental insufficiency, not enough room to grow, so abort.

• Eastern tent caterpillars cuticle covered with barbed septae.  Mare ingests, septae travel into fetus and cause early abortion (increased echogenicity of fetal fluid) or late abortion (fetal funisitis = infection of umbilical cord in late pregnancy). 
• Also see uveitis, pericarditis.  Lots of neutrophils in umbilical cord

• epididymitis
• RARELY placentitis and abortion
• small ruminants can get other Brucellas, but this is most common
• B. mellitensis vaccine

• zoonotic!
• 20% abortion rate
• ingestion of food/water contaminated by cat feces
• signs: fetal resorption, stillbirths, weak lambs
• "pepperoni pizza" cotyledons, necrotic foci

• gram negative coccobacillus
• zoonotic
• host is dog, wild canids
• transmission: ingestion, inhalation, coitus, direct contact
• MO in high numbers in vaginal discharge of aborting female, also in urine
• signs: epididymitis, periorchitis, occasional abortion
• dx: AGID.  5-10wks post-infection before Abs detected

• severe viral infection of puppies 1-3wks old
• disseminated focal necrosis and hemorrhage
• inclusion bodies
• tx: Keep environmental temp 37C!  
• Expose naive bitches to older multiparous bitches

• herpesvirus
• resp infection with fever, sneezing, inflamed eyes/conjunctivitis, rhinitis
• fatal in kittens
• vax

• parvo
• enteritis
• often fatal
• cerebellar hypoplasia in kittens (if cat infected during preg)
• spread transplacentally: abortion, stillbirth, embryonic resorption and fetal mummification
• vaccine

• abortion late in gestation
• other forms of repro failure (fetal death, resorption)
• vax!

• fetal death
• small litters, mummification
• mummies of different sizes

large group of enteroviruses causing SMEDI (stillbirth, mummification, embryonic death, infertility

• herpesvirus of pigs
• neonatal illness and death (100% in 7 day old piglets)
• pregnancy failure, early embryonic death and return to estrus, mummification, weak neonates, stillborn

• porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus
• long term carrier status
• fetal death, abortion (often only part of litter.  50% of positive piglets die soon after birth)

• types 1 and 2
• PMWS: post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome
• vax since 2006

• cat  - 2 mo
• dog - 65d
• sow - 3mo, 3wk, 3d
• ewe - 5mo
• doe - 5mo
• cow - 275-295d (9-10mo)
• camelid - 11.5mo (variable)
• mare - 320-360d (11-12mo)

• ventral and hindlimb edema
• udder development - 2-6wks. Maidens late
• perineal relaxation - 1-3wks
• engorgement of teat ends - 1 wk
• waxing - 1-3d
• some mares will leak milk for a week before
• increase in Ca and Mg in milk in 72h before foaling. decreased Na and increased K 24h pre-delivery (some never change).  pH usu decreases from 8 to below 7 in 24h before.
• Ca more tells you when foaling will NOT occur

• "bagging up", udder growth
• pelvic ligament relaxation
• vulva elongation and swelling ("springing")
• clear vaginal mucus 1-2d pre-partum (loss of mucus plug)
• restlessness

• 57d from cytological diestrus (when superficial cells drop 50%)
• 63d after ovulation
• 65d after LH surge
• temp drop (<99) 8-24h before (P4 is a thermoregulator, when it drops so does rectal temp--then rises again)
• Progesterone drops 24-48h before
• lactation 2wks to several days, some never
• nesting behavior 5-7d
• contraction - 12h.
• lochia (water breaking) - 1-2h

• stage 1: uterine contraction, cervical relaxation.  Hormonal cross-talk between fetus and dam. Not a lot of abdominal effort. Ends when water breaks/rupture of chorioallantois. Fetal cortisol causes hormone cascade, uterine contractions tell fetus to move into position, engages brith canal, Fergusson's reflex leads to oxytocin secretion, cervical dilation, pressure in canal breaks chorioallantois. 
• stage 2: fetal expulsion. FAST in horse/alpaca
• stage 3: fetal membrane expulsion (do NOT manually remove in mare/cow)
• Stages 2 and 3 kind've happen together in litter-bearing.

• Presentation: relationship between fetal long axis and dam long axis.  longitudinal (anterior or posterior to sacrum) vs transverse (ventral or dorsal in contact with sacrum)
• postition: relationship between fetal spine and dam's pelvis.  Dorso-sacral, dorso-pubic, right or left dorso-iliac
• Posture: relationship of fetal head, neck and limbs to fetus.  Right deviation or the head and neck, unilateral carpal flexion, bilateral hock flexion, etc. 
• normal in small animals: 60% cranial, 40% caudal

• foal stands in 1h
• foal nurses in 2h
• mare passes placenta in 3h

• if not within 3h, EMERGENCY!
• retained predisposes to metritis, laminitis, sepsis and death

• Cow: fetopelvic disproportion (just doesn't fit!). Then malposition
• mare, ewe, doe: fetal malposition
• sow, queen: uterine inertia

• MECONIUM IS AN EMERGENCY!!  Intervene!
• Ringwomb = failure to dilate cervix. Give PGF2alpha, NOT OXYTOCIN (obstruction!)
• check for multiple fetus, deliver backwards fetus first

• 4 or more pups! 4 = no medical mgmt
• fetus won't fit
• most true dystocia requires C-section
• medical only if: puppies are fine, bitch in good health, cervix dilated, fetal size normal.  Dystocial caused by primary uterine inertia or secondary to fatigue.  Oxytocin, Ca, Glc

• velvet structure bulging from vulva, star in center
• failed rupture of cervical star, premature placental separation
• BREAK THE ALLANTOCHORION!!  Deliver the foal.  
• Needs to have a star--otherwise it could be a bladder prolapse

• 1 person/pup!
• remove fetal membranes and tie umbilical cord
• gentle vigorous stimulation in towel drying
• clean airway using infant suction bulb
• warmth and humidity in incubator
• give O2 if don't start breathing in 30sec
• naloxone (1 drop)
• doxapram (1 drop, resp stim)
• GV-26
• once awake, nurse or SQ serum immediately

be clean, be gentle, use lots of lube

• prologed stage 1 (failure to progress)
• prolonged stage 2
• malposition of presenting body parts
• red bag!
• know the timeline for the species!!
• intervene when you see an obvious problem or when no progress is seen for >15-20 mins.
• watch for fetopelvic disproportion - baby just doesn't fit through the birth canal

• withdrawal reflex
• anal reflex
• corneal reflex
• double and triple check before you move to a fetotomy, they are often ridiculously depressed.

• >72d from breeding
• >4h between rupture of first choroallantois and delivery of first puppy
• >30min of hard straining with no pup
• >2h between puppies
• strong contractions with pup in canal and not progressing
• malodorous vaginal d/c (likely means dead puppies)
• green/black discharge for more than 3h (normal as long as there is progression) with no contractions
• rectal temp dropped >24h ago and no pups
• fetal HR below 200 = distress!!!

• most common in cattle, dx during parturition as dystocia, failure to progress. Broad ligaments attach caudally. If the CALF IS UPSIDE DOWN, THE UTERUS IS TORSED. Vaginal twist = uterine twist. Try to fix with vaginal, detorsion rod, plank-in-flank or c-section
• mares and alpacas get in mid-late gestation and present as colic. Broad ligaments attach dorsally. Usu too early to deliver fetus, so correct via sx.
• canine and feline very rare, systemic, bloody discharge (both preg and non-preg)

• complete by 45-50d postpartum. 2nd post-partum ovulation around this time
• complications and energy balance, etc can delay. 
• Thin-walled, flaccid, smooth uterus is probably pathological
• lochia gone by ~18d.
• most common problems in dairy cattle: more production stress, more intensive housing, etc. Normal for them to have bacterial contamination 2-3wks post-calving

• inflammation of all layers of the uterus within first week postpartum. 
• SYSTEMIC illness, obvious clinical dz
• 20-40% of cows. 
• signs: fetid, red/red-brown, watery vulvar discharge, large atonic thin-walled fluid-filled uterus, endotoxemia (depression, agalactia, fever, anorexia, GI atony, tachycardia, tachypnea, dehydration, peritonitis)
• LIFE THREATENING
• Puerperal metritis
• tx: severe and toxic = urgent and intensive. IU abx are poorly absorbed. Systemic ceftiofur, maybe penicillin. oxytocin to stop fluid buildup. NSAIDS and fluids. DON'T FLUSH dairy cows, or use anything else. 
• 62% self-cure, 75-80% better with tx. 
• px: may decrease milk yield and fertility, laminitis, death.

• aka muco-purulent or purulent d/c in cranial vagina. Was "clinical endometritis"
• 4-5wks postpartum
• signs: vaginal discharge (variable), uterus may be slightly large and doughy, lower preg rate, no systemic signs, short or irregular estrous cycles
• dx: grade character of vaginal d/c, mucus:pus %
• tx: IU cepharpirin (not available in US). There is no US tx

• aka subclinical endometritis
• inflammation of endometrium
• dx via endometrial cytology (lavage vs cytobrush) >5-10% neutrophils. Hyperechoic on US. Bx and culture get varied results. 
• caused by impaired uterine involution, contamination or infusion of irritants into uterus. Usu T. pyogenes
• tx: controversial. IU abx no good (maybe metricure), PGF2alpha in animals with CL.  Doesn't change fertility. 
• px: expected to recover

• inflammation within cervix
• dx: >5% neutrophils on cytobrush 1mo after calving. vaginal speculum, hyperemia of external os, mucopurulent exudates
• hard to distinguish/commonly seen with endometritis or PVD

• purulent exudate in endometrial cavity, from PERSISTENT CL.  Not cycling!  Usu in cows that ovulate before resolving bacterial infection post-calving. CL persists because IU fluid prevents luteolysis.  
• P4 SUPPRESSES UTERINE DEFENSE MECHANISM
• usu T. pyogenes. Maybe fusobacterium, prevotella. 
• signs: anestrus. Usu no d/c but maybe thick/creamy when laying down. Enlarged asymmetrical fluid-filled horns.  CL with no fetus or fetal membrane slip
• tx: PGF2alpha, 2 days in a row for best efficacy. If fails, give more. If fails again, check for scar tissue preventing fluids from exiting.
• px: must recover quickly, fertility dep on how long it was there

• E coli in first week postpartum, associated with metritis
• trueperella pyogenes in weeks 2-3 with endometritis
• e coli predisposes to trueperella
• P4 makes uterus more susceptible to disease

• failure of expulsion by 24h, 5-15% in dairy cows, more in older. 
• risks: abortion, stillbirth, multiple births, dystocia, uterine torsion, heat stress, hydrops condition, periparturient hypocalcemia, nutritional (Se and VitE)
• impaired neutrophil fctn in late preg, NOT decreased muscular contraction (actually INCREASED frequency and amplitude)
• signs: obvious unless membranes still completely inside - vaginal exam warranted. Decreased milk production. 
• tx: DO NOT REMOVE. Usu benign neglect.  Prevent with appropriate nutrition and supp, monensin.

• Uterine involution REALLY FAST
• re-epithelialization, return to non-gravid size within 30d. Some lochia, scant serosanguinous d/c. First foal heat 7-10d post-partum. Fertile.

• 1st degree: only mucosa
• 2nd degree: muscle but not rectum
• 3rd degree: full thickness to rectum
• Fecal contamination of vagina/uterus decreases fertility.  
• Surgical correction.

• Hoof of foal causes uterine tear, caudal vaginal tear
• Can happen after natural breeding
• Humane euthanasia

• can affect maiden or multiparous mares
• signs: colic just after parturition, sweating, pale mm (shock).
• If contained, hematoma. Otherwise, hemorrhage and drop dead. 
• Aminocaproic acid

• bruising is normal. But in cattle esp, swelling can cause nerve paralysis - obturator = splayed legs.  
• tx: supportive care, hobbles, steroids.  Usu Supportive is enough.

• Predisposes to placentitis
• sx repair, but this predisposes to pyo in a mare, which usu ends their fertility.

• failure to pass within 3h, most common postpartum prob in mare.  
• Predisposing: draft mares, NONGRAVID horn is thinner and more folding and attached so more commonly retained. Dystocia, uterine inertia due to decreased Ca, overstretching of myometrium (twins, hyrops), myometrial degeneration.
• signs: uterine infections, metritis, fever, endotoxemia, dehydration, systemic illness, laminitis
• dx: EXAMINE THE PLACENTA, transrectal palp for large thin walled flaccid friable uterus, transrectal US, vaginoscopy/vaginal exam.  Usu CBC and fibrinogen to monitor systemic progression. 
• tx: oxytocin, antimicrobials, anti-inflammatories, fluids, uterine lavage.  Ice feed if digital pulses increase.  
• DO NOT REMOVE - hemorrhage, invagination of uterine horn, delayed uterine clearance.

• cattle, sheep, mares, queens, and sows (poor px), less common in bitch. 
• predisposing: hypocalcemia, excessive straining (obstructive dystocia)
• tx: restrain, epidural, elevate uterus to reduce edema, clean, assess damage, repair tears
• tx: replace, check both horns for placement, infuse lots of saline or dilute betadine.  Oxytocin, Ca, Abx
• complications: arterial rupture and exsanguination, intestinal incarceration

risk factors: late term abortions, prolonged parturition, dystocia, retained fetal membranes, old age.

• uncommon, more in queen than bitch.  Usu prolapse immediately or within hours.  Unilateral or bilateral.  
• Tx: manual preposition, laparotomy reposition, amputation/OHE.

• spontaneous or iatrogenic.  Presents as evisceration in sheep, septic abdomen in SA. 
• Can be caused by using oxytocin in obstructive dystocia!!

• uterine involution: complete by 12 weeks.  uterine desquamation and re-epithelialization
• normal lochia: scant, from bloody to black/green in 24h, progress to dark red/brown but non-odorous, resolve by 3wks.

• all breeds susceptible, esp toys.  Prepartum, peripartum or postpartum, usu 2-4wks postpartum. 
• signs: stiff gait, trembling, twitching, seizures, tachycardia, panting, hyperthermia
• dx: hx, PE, ionized Ca
• tx: fluid therapy, Ca glc

• uncommon, usu from prolonged whelping or dystocia.  Usu in toy breeds. 
• signs: persistence of green-black discharge for longer than 24-26h post-partum, usu putrid odor.  Systemic illness 2-4d after whelping.  Poor maternal behavior.

• inflammation of endometrium and myometrium.  Immediate postpartum dz.
• could be associated with retained placenta, retained pups, obstetrical manipulations
• ascending bacterial infection
• signs: depression, systemic illness, malodorous discharge, fever, shock
• dx: cytology shows neutrophils, bacteria.  Enlarged doughy uterus, abd rads or US.  Blood work shows neutrophilic leukocytosis or leukopenia. 
• tx: fluids, systemic broad spectrum abx, dextrose for hypoglycemia, sx, ecbolic therapy (PGF2alpha, oxytocin)

• normal lochia last up to 3-6wk, >6wks, suspect SIPS.  Involution delayed >12wks. 
• Trophoblastic cells don't degenerate and continue to invade deep glandular layer of endometrium or myometrium.  
• More common in maidens <3y
• signs: normal bitches with hemorrhagic uterine discharge for weeks
• dx: cytology (trophoblast cells), uterine swelling of different sizes (palpation, US)
• tx: spontaneous remission. OHE with severe hemorrhage or ulceration.

• usu during lactation. Ascending bacterial infection, trauma, poor hygiene, hematogenous spread.  Usu e coli
• acute, chronic, gangrenous.  Single or multiple glands affected. 
• signs: red, hot, edematous, or firm. 
• dx: color of milk (can be normal!), cytology and culture
• gangrenous: WEAN NEONATES. Sx removal or wait and wound care. 
• tx: oral abx (cephaliexin, clavamox, macrolides), fluids PRN.  Abscessed glands should be lanced, drained, flushed. Cabergolin/Dostinex for 5-7d to suppress lactation

• aka MMA (mastitis, metritis, agalactia)
• first three days after farrowing. Restless piglets, losses due to malnutrition.  
• tx: abx, NSAIDs. Cross-foster piglets.

• Pro: pop control. Uterine, ovarian, testicular, mammary cancer. pyometra, androgen-dependent disease like BPH, perianal adenoma, prostatitis, perineal hernia. VD, behavior. 
• cons: hemorrhage, infection, GA, ovarian remnant, stump pyo, urinary incontinence, recessed vulva/juvenile vaginitis, delayed physeal closure, obesity

• NOT RECOMMENDED!
• megesterol acetate: negative feedback on hypothalamus/pituitary. Reversible. CEH/Pyo, mammary development, lactation post-tx. 
• medroxyprogesterone acetate: same effects. SQ in male to decrease motility, morphology, sperm output. not labeled for SA

Mibolerone/testosterone: neg feedback on pituitary to block LH secretion. FEMALE only, reversible. Dogs ok. Clitoromegaly, mucoid vaginitis, liver dysfunction

• Male and female. 
• Suprelorin (ovuplant) implant: downregs GnRH receptors, induces one heat cycle then inhibits. OK for cats. Return to estrus is variable, fertility may be altered. Hard to find to remove!  NOT LABELED FOR SA

• Female only: ZP3 = abs against zona pellucida, sperm unable to bind, causes ovarian dysfunction
• male and female: GnRH vaccine causes GnRH abs to decrease pituitary secretion. Hard to produce durable titers
• disadvantages: don't work 100%, require boosters, adjuvent side effects.  NOT FOR SA

male only: intratesticular, intraepididymal and intravasdeferens.  Neutersol (zync gluconate) = direct damage to germ and somatic cells.  Testosterone declines after injection but normal 2yrs later. Not 100%, pain and necrosis, irreversible.

• 40% of bitches that mate once become pregnant
• confirm pregnancy at 30d
• DON'T USE ESTROGEN - right after mating, alters endometrium to prevent attachment but causes bone marrow suppression and predisposes to Pyo. 
• Prostaglandins: Cl lysis followed by decrease in P4 and abortion. Causes myometrial contractions. Repeat doses until P4 declines. .  effects: hypersalivation, v/d.  Decreased when walked after admin.  Not life threatening.
• Prolactin inhibitors: cabergoline and bromocriptine. Dopamine receptor agonists that inhibit prolactin secretion, which is luteotropic. CL lyses, abortion. effects: vomiting and anorexia.  Often used with prostaglandins. 
• Progesterone antagonists: Alizin binds to P4 receptors in uterus to block, cause abortion. No side effects. Not available in US.

• downregulates COX2, prolonging CL lifespan.
• Complications: fall out, may not work, lodging of glass in endometrium causes pyo. 
• NOT RECOMMENDED.

• Give oxytocin every day from day 8-14 after ovulation, downregulates COX2, prevents PGF2alpha and prolongs CL lifespan.
• Safe for mare but requires multiple doses.  
• Should work for 2mo, but not always.

• regamate (daily PO) or progesterone injectable (weekly, painful!)
• Negative feedback to decrease LH
• inhibits estrus behavior.
• Mares can cycle.

• porcine ZP vaccine: prevents fertilization and causes oophoritis, but less than in SA. Booster annually. mares still present signs of heat. Not FDA approved.
• GnRH vaccine: anti-GnRH antibody by using GnRH conjugated with foreign proteins. Stops gonadotropin secretion. Works in male and female. Variation on response within individuals.

• progestagens
• immune: GnRH and ZP3
• GnRH agonists